Plants can also help in determining the cardinal points. Tree bark, individual stones, rocks, walls of old wooden buildings are usually thicker covered with moss and lichen on the north side (Fig. 5.5). The bark of trees on the north side is rougher and darker than on the south side. In wet weather, a wet dark stripe forms on the trees (this is especially noticeable in pines). On the northern side of the trunk, it persists longer and rises higher. In birches on the south side of the trunk, the bark is usually lighter and more elastic. In pine, the secondary (brown, cracked) bark on the north side rises higher along the trunk.

In spring, the grass cover is more developed and dense on the northern outskirts of the glades warmed by the sun, in the hot period of summer, on the contrary, on the southern, shaded ones. The anthill has a flatter side facing south.

In spring, on the southern slopes, the snow seems to “bristle”, forming southward ledges (thorns), separated by depressions. The border of the forest along the southern slopes rises higher than along the northern ones.

Fundamentals of survival in various emergency situations literature. The coals in the fire quickly turn to ash. In the "well" the fuel burns out more slowly than in the "hut"; a lot of coals are formed, which create a high temperature

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RUSSIAN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS MINISTRY

FEDERAL STATE STATE INSTITUTION

"1 TEAM OF THE FEDERAL FIRE-FIGHTING SERVICE

FOR THE UDMURT REPUBLIC"

FPS TRAINING STATION

APPROVE

Head of the Training Center of the FPS

FGKU "1 detachment of FPS

for the Udmurt Republic"

lieutenant colonel of internal service

S.A. Churakov

"____" __________________ 2017

PLAN-SUMMARY

Conducting classes on the discipline "Fire Tactics"

with students of special initial training of firefighters

Topic number 5.3.2. "Fundamentals of Survival in Various Emergencies"

Considered at a meeting of the pedagogical council

Protocol No. _____ dated ______________

"_____" ________________20 years

Type of lesson: lecture

Lesson time: 80 minutes

The purpose of the lesson: to familiarize students with the basics of survival in various emergencies

Literature:

Fire tactics / Terebnev V.V., Yekaterinburg: "Publishing house" Kalan "2007.

Handbook of the head of fire fighting. Povzik Ya.S. Moscow "Special equipment" 2001

Rescuer's Manual M 2011

Order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection dated December 23, 2014 No. 1100n “On approval of the Rules for labor protection in the divisions of the federal fire service of the State Fire Service”.

Belov SV et al. Life safety. Textbook. M., " graduate School", 2001

Psychology of extreme situations for rescuers and firefighters / ed.

Study questions:

Study question

Time, min.

Moving in natural environment

Educational issues (including control of classes)

Basics of survival, signaling

When conducting RPS in the natural environment, rescuers often have to perform tasks far from populated areas, spend several days in the “field conditions”, and face a variety of extreme situations, which imposes additional requirements on their ability to work in these conditions.

Strong knowledge in various areas, the ability to use them in any conditions are the basis of survival. Going to the RPS, rescuers must, along with tools and protective equipment, have the following set of necessary items that can be useful in any climatic and geographical zone: a signal mirror, with which you can send a distress signal at a distance of up to 3 (M0 km) hunting matches, a candle or tablets of dry fuel for making a fire or heating a shelter, a whistle for signaling; a large knife (machete) in a sheath that can be used as a knife; an ax; a shovel; a spear; a compass; a piece of dense foul and polyethylene; fishing equipment; signal cartridges; medicines supply of water and food.

Signaling. Rescuers must know and be able to put into practice special signals

Rescuers can use the smoke of a fire during the day to designate their own location. bright light at night. If you throw rubber, pieces of insulation, oil rags into a fire, black smoke will be emitted, which is clearly visible in cloudy weather. To get white smoke, which is clearly visible in clear weather, green leaves, fresh grass, and damp moss should be thrown into the fire.

To give a signal from the ground to an air vehicle (aircraft), a special signal mirror can be used. It is necessary to keep it at a distance of 25-30 cm from the face and look through the sighting hole at the aircraft; turning the mirror, match the light spot with the sighting hole. In the absence of a signal mirror, objects with shiny surfaces can be used. For sighting, you need to make a hole in the center of the object. The light beam must be sent along the entire horizon line, even in cases where the noise of the aircraft engine is not heard.

At night, the light of a hand-held electric flashlight, a torch, a fire can be used for signaling.

A fire built on a raft is one of the distress signals.

Good means of signaling are brightly colored objects and a special coloring powder (fluorescein, uranine), which are scattered on snow, earth, water, and ice when an aircraft (helicopter) approaches.

In some cases, sound signals (shout, shot, knock), signal rockets, smoke bombs can be used.

One of the latest developments in the development of "target designation" is a small rubber Balloon with nylon sheath, covered with four luminous paints, under which a light bulb flashes at night; the light from it is clearly visible at a distance of 4-5 km. Before launch, the balloon is filled with helium from a small capsule and held at a height of 90 m by a nylon cable. The mass of the kit is 1.5 kg.

In order to facilitate the search, it is advisable to use the International Ground-to-Air Air Signals Code Table. Its signs can be laid out with the help of improvised means (equipment, clothing, stones, trees), directly by people who must lie down on the ground, snow, ice or trampled on the snow.

Along with the ability to give signals, rescuers must be able to work and live in the field, taking into account meteorological (weather) factors. Monitoring the state and forecasting of the weather is carried out by special meteorological services. Weather information is transmitted by means of communication, in special reports, is applied to maps using conventional signs.

In the absence of information about the weather, rescuers must be able to determine and predict it according to local characteristics. To obtain reliable information, it is advisable to make a weather forecast simultaneously for several of them.

International Code Table for Airborne Ground-to-Air Signals:

1 - Need a doctor - serious bodily injury; 2 - Medicines are needed; 3 - Unable to move; 4 - Need food and water; 5 - Requires weapons and ammunition; 6 - Map and compass required; 7 - We need a signal lamp with a battery and a radio station; 8 - Specify the direction of travel; 9 - I am moving in this direction; 10 - Let's try to take off; 11 - Vessel seriously damaged; 12 - Here you can safely land; 13 - Fuel and oil required; 14 - All right; 15 - No or negative; 16 - Yes or positive; 17 - Did not understand; 18 - Need a mechanic; 19 - Operations completed; 20 - Nothing found, keep searching; 21 - Information received that the aircraft is in this direction; 22 - We found all the people; 23 - We found only a few people; 24 - We are unable to continue, returning to base; 25 - Divided into two groups, each follows in the indicated direction.

Organization of housing, shelter, food, protection

The weather imposes certain requirements on the organization of a bivouac, temporary housing, life and rest during multi-day RPS. With this in mind, rescuers organize a bivouac. It should be located in avalanche-proof and rock-fall-safe areas, close to a source of drinking water, have a supply of deadwood or firewood. It is impossible to arrange a bivouac in the dried up beds of mountain rivers, near the shallows, in dense shrubs, coniferous thickets, near dry, hollow, rotten trees, in thickets of flowering rhododendron. After removing stones, branches, debris from the site and leveling it, rescuers can proceed with setting up the tent.

Tents differ in design features (frame, frameless), capacity, material. Despite this, they are all designed to protect a person from cold, rain, wind, dampness, and insects.

The procedure for setting up the tent is as follows:

deploy a tent;

stretch and secure the bottom;

install racks and tighten guy lines;

fasten the exit and tighten the roof braces;

eliminate creases on the roof by tensioning (loosening) the guys;

dig a ditch around the tent with a width and depth of 8-10 cm to drain water into
case of rain.

Under the bottom of the tent, you can put dry leaves, grass, ferns, reeds, moss. When setting up a tent on snow (ice), empty backpacks, ropes, windbreakers, blankets, polyurethane foam mats should be placed on the floor.

The pegs are hammered at an angle of 45° to the ground to a depth of 20-25 cm. Trees, stones, ledges can be used to secure the tent. The back wall of the tent must be placed in the direction of the prevailing winds.

In the absence of a tent, you can spend the night under a piece of tarpaulin, polyethylene, or equip a hut from improvised materials (branches, logs, spruce branches, leaves, reeds). It is installed on a flat and dry place, in a clearing or the edge of a forest.

In winter, the campsite should be cleared of snow and ice.

In a snowy winter, rescuers must be able to arrange shelters in the snow. The simplest of them is a hole dug around a tree, the size of which depends on the number of people. From above, the pit must be closed with branches, dense cloth, covered with snow for better thermal insulation. You can build a snow cave, a snow dugout, a snow trench. When entering a snow shelter, you should clean your clothes from snow and dirt, take a shovel or knife with you, which can be used to make ventilation holes and passage in case of snow fall.

For cooking, heating, drying clothes, signaling, rescuers use fires of the following types: "hut", "well" ("log house"), "taiga", "no-dya", "fireplace", "Polynesian", "starry" , "pyramid".

"Shalash" is convenient for fast food tea and camp lighting. This fire is very "gluttonous", it burns hot. “Well” (“log house”) is kindled, if you need to cook food in a large bowl, dry wet clothes. In the "well" the fuel burns out more slowly than in the "hut", a lot of coals are formed, which create high temperature. On the "taiga" you can cook food at the same time in several pots. On one thick log (approximately 20 cm thick) put several thinner

Types of fires: a - "hut"; b - "well"; c - "taiga"; g - "nodya"; d - "fireplace"; e - "Polynesian"; g - "star"; h - "pyramid"

Any fire must be lit only after careful preparation of the site: collection of dry grass and deadwood, making a deepening in the ground, fencing with stones the place where it will be bred. The fuel for the fire is dry forest, grass, reeds, shrubs. It has been noticed that burning spruce, pine, cedar, chestnut, larch give a lot of sparks. Quietly burning oak, maple, elm, beech.

To quickly kindle a fire, kindling is needed (birch bark, small dry branches and firewood, a piece of rubber, paper, dry fuel). It fits tightly with a "hut" or "well". To make the kindling light up better, put a piece of candle in it or put dry alcohol. Thicker dry branches are laid around the kindling, then thick firewood. In wet weather or during rain, the fire must be covered with a tarpaulin, a backpack, or a thick cloth.

You can kindle a fire with matches, a lighter, sunlight and a magnifying glass, friction, flint, a shot. In the latter case, you need:

open the cartridge and leave only gunpowder in it;

lay dry cotton wool on top of the gunpowder;

shoot at the ground, while observing security measures;

smoldering cotton wool will ensure further kindling of the fire.

For making a fire in winter time it is necessary to clear the snow to the ground or build a deck of thick logs on the snow, otherwise the melted snow will extinguish the fire.

To prevent a fire from causing a fire, it must not be lit under low-lying tree branches, near flammable objects, on the leeward side, relative to the bivouac, on peat bogs, near reeds and reeds, dry grass, moss, in spruce and pine undergrowth. In these places, the fire spreads at high speed and is difficult to extinguish. In order to prevent the spread of fire, the fire must be surrounded by a ditch or stones.

The safe distance from the campfire to the tent is 10 meters.

The energy consumption of the human body with an average and above average intensity of loads ranges from 3200 to 4000 kcal per day. Under extreme loads, energy costs increase to 4600-5000 kcal. In this case, the diet should consist of various products containing all the elements necessary for the body. An example of a balanced diet is shown above.

This list may be supplemented by forest products (mushrooms, berries, fruits of wild trees), hunting, and fishing.

Food consumption is carried out in the established mode, which includes two or three hot meals a day, if possible, every day at the same time. For lunch, 40% of the daily diet is spent, for breakfast - 35% and for dinner - 25%.

To maintain a high level of efficiency, the rescuer must adhere to the optimal mode of drinking water consumption.

The water lost by the body must be replaced, otherwise the process of dehydration begins. The loss of water in the amount of 1-2% of body weight makes a person very thirsty; at 3-5% nausea, fever, apathy, fatigue occur; at 10%, irreversible changes appear in the body; at 20% a person dies. The need for water depends on the intensity of the work, the temperature and humidity of the air, and the weight of the human body. With relatively limited physical mobility, the need for water ranges from 1.5-2.0 liters per day in areas with moderate temperatures, to 4-6 liters or more per day in the desert and tropics. With high physical and nervous stress, the need for water increases by 2-3 times.

In natural and artificial reservoirs, water quality often does not meet the requirements safe use. Therefore, it is advisable to boil it before use. Polluted or marsh water must be treated with potassium permanganate or special preparations. Water can also be filtered using depressions in damp earth, thick cloth, special filters.

Moving in the natural environment

RESCUER MOVEMENT OVER ROUGH TERRAIN

Rough terrain is a piece of the earth's surface without high mountains. It is characterized by a variety of conditions, including the presence, along with flat plots of land, hills, hills, ravines, valleys, scree, rivers, reservoirs, vegetation.

Movement on flat areas of rough terrain is characterized by the rhythm of steps with approximately the same length and frequency. The rhythm of movements is ensured by the optimal functioning of the circulatory system, respiratory and other functional systems of the body. At the moment of unsupported position of the leg, its muscles must be relaxed as much as possible. When lowering to the ground, the leg muscles tighten again. The foot must be placed on the entire surface, and not on the edge, to avoid injury to the ankle joint. Walk with slightly bent knees.

The length and frequency of the step are purely individual and depend on many factors: height, weight, strength, experience, fitness of a person, terrain, mass of the load carried. On steep sections, the stride length is reduced by more than half, sometimes it is equal to the length of the foot or can even be shorter.

When driving on flat areas, the average speed is 4-5 km / h and decreases when driving through forests, swamps, bushes, thickets, snow, sand.

On the rises, the leg must be placed on the entire foot, the toes of the legs should be slightly turned to the sides. This provides a reliable grip of the sole of the shoe with the supporting surface. The body leans slightly forward. With an increase in the steepness of the slope of more than 15 °, the ascent is carried out using the “herringbone” method. At the same time, the toes of the legs turn to the sides. The steeper the slope, the greater the angle you need to turn your feet.

The ascent and descent of the slopes is often carried out using the "serpentine" method. This method is associated with movement across the slope (traverse). When “serpentine”, the leg must be placed with the entire sole across the slope so that the toe of the “nearest” leg to the slope of the legs is turned up, and the toe of the “far” leg is turned down. The angle of the foot turn depends on the steepness of the slope. At the moment of changing the direction of movement along the slope, it is necessary to take an elongated step with the “far” leg, placing it up the slope, then place the foot of the “near” leg across the slope, in a “herringbone”, turn around and continue moving.

To facilitate movement along the slope, animal trails, potholes, securely lying objects, an alpenstock, an ice ax should be used.

Scree movement requires special attention, since it is associated with the possibility of rockfall. Screes are strong and fragile, with small, medium and large stones.

Movement along solid talus is carried out straight up or with small zigzags. When zigzagging, always be careful not to be above or below another rescuer.

On fragile scree, you need to move carefully, obliquely. Each broken stone, if possible, should be detained and strengthened. If it was not possible to detain him, then everyone should be warned with the exclamation: “Stone”. Rocks and tree trunks are reliable shelter from stones.

The most dangerous talus with a rocky base.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS IN THE CONDITIONS OF ROCKETS

Conducting RPS can cause the need to move rescuers in the conditions of blockages. The route of movement is selected taking into account the shortest distance to the place of work, in the absence of unstable elements and additional obstacles on the way.

When moving through a blockage, rescuers must exercise extreme caution, as it can be fraught with many unexpected things:

victims and material values;

collapse of surviving, unstable fragments of buildings and elements of buildings;

voids and their subsidence;

explosions as a result of the accumulation of combustible and explosive gases in voids;

fire and smoke;

damaged utility networks, product pipelines;

harmful substances, including AHOV.

When moving in the immediate vicinity of the blockage, special attention should be paid to the surviving fragments of buildings, since they represent an increased danger. This is due to the possibility of their sudden collapse. No less dangerous are damaged utility systems.

When moving along the surface of the blockage, the optimal and safe route is chosen. Special attention give to the choice of the place of setting the legs. You need to step only on securely lying objects. In some cases, the remains of buildings, boards, pipes, fittings should be removed from the road.

It is impossible to move in conditions of blockage, enter destroyed buildings, and be near them unnecessarily. Do not run, jump, or throw heavy objects at the blockage. This can cause injury to rescuers and create an additional threat to the health and life of the victims who are in the rubble.

In cases where partially destroyed buildings remain in the RPS area, it is necessary to provide assistance to the people who are in them. To do this, rescuers must assess the reliability of buildings, determine the methods of movement, extraction and evacuation of victims.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS IN CRASHED CONDITIONS

When conducting RPS, rescuers often have to move in cramped conditions (narrow passage, well, crack, pipe). The peculiarity of this movement is that it is carried out in unusual positions: on the side, on the back, on all fours, crawling. To this it is necessary to add the psychological discomfort associated with the constant feeling of fear that arises on the basis of claustrophobia - fear of enclosed space.

As a rule, toxic and explosive substances accumulate in a closed space, there is no light in it.

Work in cramped conditions can be carried out after checking the air in the working area with instruments or in an insulating gas mask. A rescuer in cramped conditions must be secured with a rope. Special lamps are used to illuminate the route and places of work.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS IN THE SNOW

The movement of rescuers on snow can be carried out on foot, using snowshoes, skis, sledges, snowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles.

One of the most common ways is walking. Its speed depends on the height and structure of the snow cover, the nature of the terrain.

Snow cover with a height of 0.3 m or more is difficult for walking. This is due to the peculiarity of walking, which consists in the need to punch a continuous road in freshly fallen snow or individual holes in old snow. All this requires great physical effort, causes rapid fatigue. Therefore, when walking in deep snow, it is often necessary to replace the rescuer walking in front.

To prevent snow from getting into your shoes, put on trousers over them and tie them at the bottom.

Special devices - snowshoes - help to increase the speed of rescuers' movement in the snow and save energy. They are an oval-shaped frame made of a bar 7 mm thick, 420 mm long and 200 mm wide. 20-25 holes with a diameter of 8-9 mm are drilled in the frame, through which it is intertwined with rawhide belts. A tarpaulin or dense fabric measuring 80x270 mm and rings for tying snowshoes to shoes are attached to the resulting mesh.

MOVEMENT OF RESCUERS ON ICE

At an air temperature of 0 ° C and below, water from a liquid state passes into a solid state (crystallizes), ice is formed. On water surfaces, the thickness and strength of ice depend on the speed of the water flow, its composition and the presence of aquatic vegetation. Level ice forms on a smooth, wind-sheltered water surface. Old (pack) ice is covered with hummocks, which appear as a result of ice compression.

When large heavy ice floes collide between them, grated ice is formed, unsuitable for movement.

The thickness of the ice, especially on fast water, is not the same everywhere. It is thin near the coast, on the rapids, in the area of rifts, near rocks, at the confluence of rivers, their confluence with the sea (lake), near frozen objects on bends and bends of rivers. The most dangerous ice under the snow and snowdrifts. The danger when moving on ice is polynyas, ice holes, holes, cracks, hummocks, places where solder and moving ice come into contact.

The movement of rescuers on the ice requires increased security measures. An ice thickness of 10 cm in fresh water and 15 cm in salt water is considered safe for one person. To determine the thickness of the ice, it must be drilled (cut through).

The reliability of the ice is checked by the passage of one lifeguard (light) on it, who, for safety reasons, must be insured with a rope. If, when moving along it, the ice makes characteristic sounds - it cracks, then you can’t walk on it. In case of breaking through the ice, it is necessary to drop heavy things, get to the surface of the ice, lie on your stomach, lean on a pole, skis or ski poles and crawl to the shore.

Special care must be taken when driving on ice that is covered with snow or water. When jumping from one ice floe to another, the support points should be no closer than 50 cm from the edge of the ice.

Aids and equipment used in the lesson: teaching board, teaching aids

Task for independent work students and preparation for the next lesson: review the material covered

Developed

teacher of special disciplines

FPS training center

FGKU "1 detachment of the FPS in the Udmurt Republic"

senior lieutenant of the internal service A.V. Arkhipov

The basics of survival must be known not only to a reasonable man, but to all people without exception, regardless of status. There are a lot of situations as a result of which a person can be left alone with nature. You can simply get lost in the forest while picking mushrooms, you can fall behind a tourist group, you can survive after a plane or car accident, and so on…

Basics of survival: where to start?

The conditions in which a casual tourist may find himself may be very different. Therefore, the algorithm of actions and the method of survival in each case are unique. Much will depend on air temperature, precipitation, the presence or absence of shelter and water sources, landscape, and the number of people. Plus many other factors that make things easier, or vice versa, aggravate the situation.

Based on all this, the survivors will have to build and, possibly, correct actions for the most reasonable survival in each individual situation. The fundamentals of this harsh science are vitally important to observe, regardless of the influencing factors and threats.

Briefly about threatening factors

Thirst . It must be remembered that a person without water will last no more than three days. Thus, the extraction of water always becomes one of the primary tasks.
Temperature . Whether it is cold or heat, in any case, they can lead to negative consequences in the body. Heat stroke, hypothermia, etc.
mental problems(loneliness, sadness, fear). They can be detrimental to the individual if they develop into a severe form (panic, apathy, hysteria).
Hunger . At first, the lack of food does not have a strong negative effect. But, according to the basics of survival, after a week or so, exhaustion of the body can become a serious threat.
Injury and pain . Received injuries or diseases significantly reduce the chances of survivors for a successful outcome.
Aggressive environment . Includes all sorts of nuances of the situation: wild animals, poisonous plants, swamps and other delights of the habitat.
Overwork . Excessive fatigue and physical exhaustion will sooner or later play a cruel joke on any person.

Based on these factors, the survivor needs to build for himself in his head survival plan. Whatever the reason for the victim remaining cut off from civilization - in the first place, he should always try to determine his location. Ideal option there will be a map and a compass, which is unlikely in case of a sudden emergency.

If there are natural shelters nearby or broken vehicles, a crashed plane, and so on, then the victim is advised to stay in this place. It is worth moving on only in 2 cases:

1) the missing person will not be searched for in the near future;

2) the missing person knows exactly how to get to the settlement or camp.

If it is impossible to determine your location on the ground, you need to look around from the most convenient and high point (hill, tree). Having found signs of civilization or a reservoir, one should advance towards the goal.

If the terrain is too homogeneous around, then it is better to stay in place and proceed to other ways of surviving. First you need to understand what is more profitable to do first. If sunset is coming soon, then you should start building a shelter. At low temperatures, it makes sense to start your actions with a fire. If this is the case in the morning and in the summer, then you can deal with the provision of water (search, cleaning, disinfection). Each action must be logical and consistent.

Universal Survival Plan

It is necessary to understand that, by and large, in conditions of a threat to life, nothing universal can exist. However, there are some fundamental truths.

The elements of survival include the following concepts: food, shelter, fire, water, location and medicine. To prioritize them, some abbreviation is used with speaking name: PLAN. No matter where in the world the survivor is, the priority is the same - whether it is the Gobi Desert, the Amazonian jungle, the Pacific Ocean or the expanses of the Arctic.

P - protection (protection)

It is in the interests of a person in distress to provide their own protection from an aggressive environment. To do this, you need to use all the means at hand, but without the need to do "extra movements". You must always remember the expediency of efforts. Preference should be given to organizing shelter and making fire.

L - localization (location)

Next on the list of priorities will be locating and equipping distress signals. The survivor must by all means attract attention and indicate his presence.

A - adaptation (provision)

While waiting for help, you should constantly look for new sources of food and water, emergency supplies should be used only when absolutely necessary. This way of survival can be described as follows: "preserve and increase."

N - navigation (route)

If you hope for someone long and pointless, you can try the last option. In order to move forward, you need to accumulate a sufficient amount of resources and supplies. A person who dares to take such a step needs to correctly assess his strength and make an informed decision, otherwise this campaign may be the last.

In addition to the above, you must be extremely attentive to your own health and constantly monitor your well-being. Wounds must be treated without delay, preventing infection and inflammation. Purified and boiled water is the key to success.

Additional materials

The basic ways of survival that you need to take at the very beginning of "unity" with nature remain unchanged. Only their order changes depending on the accompanying factors. Each of the aspects of life in the wild has its own nuances and features that deserve separate materials and articles.

A quite natural question arises: what topics should be mastered first of all, starting to study the basics of survival?

You need to start with a clear understanding that any autonomous existence is made up of individual elements, skills, factors. Due to the vastness, at the initial stage, the following free materials are recommended for reading:

After studying these articles, it is advisable to proceed to more specific ways of survival, the necessary skills and abilities. Books in this regard are an indispensable source of knowledge.

Today, in addition to capacious boats suspended from impressive davits that give a romantic touch to sea vessels, modest metal barrel-like containers are installed on the deck along the sides, sheltering inflatable rubber rafts from the sun and rain. Inflatable life rafts have appeared in the navy and aviation quite recently. In 1955, the First International Conference on Rescue Vessels took place in Lisbon. It was the first time that the question of using inflatable rafts as a means of assistance in case of an accident at sea was raised. But only five years later, at the II International Conference in London, 45 participating countries signed a convention according to which an automatically inflated rubber raft was officially recognized as a means of rescuing crews and passengers on ships over 500 tons of displacement along with lifeboats and boats. In 1967, France, and subsequently other countries, obliged the captains of ships of any class, up to fishing schooners and pleasure yachts, to have on board inflatable life rafts. Without them, today the port authorities will not let a single ship sail and not a single aircraft flying over the ocean will rise into the air. Indeed, rafts have many advantages over other life-saving equipment (boats, boats, etc.).

Survival in natural emergencies.

Earthquakes. Earthquakes are formidable natural disasters in terms of the number of victims, the amount of damage, the size of the territories they cover, and the difficulty of protecting against them. Despite the efforts of seismologists, earthquakes often occur unexpectedly. 15,000 earthquakes are recorded annually in the world, of which 300 have destructive power. Earthquake intensity is measured on the 12-point Richter scale.

If an earthquake caught you in a building, it is best to run out of it within 15-20 seconds. open space. You can not stand near buildings, brick fences, high walls. In no case should you use the elevator - it can get stuck. And if you couldn’t get out into the street, you need to take cover in a pre-selected safe place, open the door to stairwell and stand in the opening. You can hide under the table, in a wardrobe, cover your face with your hands so as not to get hurt by pieces of plaster, glass, dishes, paintings. In all cases, stay away from windows. The safest place is near the main walls. On the street, you should move away from buildings as soon as possible in the direction of squares, squares, parks, wide streets, sports fields, undeveloped areas. Especially beware of broken wires.

Floods. Floods are floods of the area due to a rise in the water level caused by various reasons (spring snowmelt, heavy rainfall and rainfall, ice jams on rivers, dam breakthroughs, wind surge, etc.)

Having received a warning about the threat of flooding, you must first of all inform your relatives and neighbors about this and immediately go to a safe place - on a hill (for subsequent evacuation to a safe area), follow the messages on the local radio. If there is time, take measures to save property, and occupy the upper floors, attics, roofs of buildings. You can not climb small trees, poles, because. they can be washed and dumped.

For movement, you must use the means available "at hand" or you can build them yourself from logs, boards, car cameras, etc. If it is impossible to leave the flooded area, wait for help on the roofs of buildings, giving signals (waving a pole with a bright cloth tied, in the dark - blink a flashlight). Once in the water, try to take off your heavy clothes and shoes, use floating objects and wait for help.

Tsunami. Tsunami is a common international scientific term, it comes from the Japanese word, which means "a big wave that floods the bay." The exact definition of a tsunami sounds like this - these are long waves of a catastrophic nature, arising mainly as a result of tectonic movements on the ocean floor.

On the present stage In the development of science, it is not possible to accurately predict the time and place of an earthquake, but after it has occurred, the possibility of a tsunami at one point or another can be predicted.

A tsunami is not a single wave, but a series of several waves. Therefore, stay away from the danger zone until all waves have passed or until the all-clear signal is given; the danger of a tsunami may exist for several hours. The approach of a tsunami can be heralded by a marked rise or fall in sea levels along the coastline. Such a signal should always serve as a warning - you have 5 - 35 minutes left. Never go down to the sea to look at the bottom exposed during the tsunami or look at the tsunami. When you see the approaching wave, it will be too late to escape. At the first signs of the tsunami mentioned above, you should quickly and orderly leave the coast and take refuge in places whose height above sea level is at least 30-40 m. sea, because rivers themselves can serve as a conduit for a wave of water rushing against their current. If there is no hill nearby, you need to move away from the seashore at a distance of 2-3 kilometers.

Hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons, storms, tornadoes, storms. This emergency is caused by the movement of air masses at high speed. Wind speed during a hurricane is 30-40 m/s, during a storm 20-30 m/s, during a storm 15-30 m/s, during a typhoon more than 50 m/s. Cyclones and typhoons are accompanied by heavy rains. A tornado is a whirlwind movement of air at a tremendous speed, sometimes exceeding the speed of sound, in the form of a dark column with a diameter of several tens to hundreds of meters. A hurricane wind destroys strong and demolishes light buildings, devastates fields, breaks wires, knocks down poles and uproots trees, sinks ships, and damages vehicles.

Having received a storm warning, you must: close windows, doors, attic space; remove everything from balconies and loggias that can be thrown off by a hurricane; turn off the gas, put out the fire in the stoves, prepare lanterns, candles, lamps; take home inner room, away from windows; stock up on water, food, keep the radio, TV, receiver turned on; in open areas, take cover in a ditch, pit, ravine; hide in a protective structure; prepare medicines and dressings.

Fires. Fire is an uncontrollable process of burning, entailing the death of people, the destruction of material values. Fires occur spontaneously (up to 10%) or at the will of a person (up to 90%). Causes of fires: careless handling of fire; lightning; arson.

A characteristic of the destructive effect of fires is the burning temperature and the speed of fires. By nature, forest fires are ground, underground and riding. During ground fires, fire moves at a speed of 0.1–1 km/h only along the surface layer, during crown fires - 3–10 km/h, the fire covers tree crowns, soil fires occur in the thickness of combustible material (peat, shale, brown coal). ). Steppe fire occurs in the dry season when herbs and breads ripen. The speed of such a fire is 20-30 km/h.

The centuries-old experience of mankind shows that psychologically prepared people are able to quickly and without panic cope with fear, excitement, anxiety and resist danger in emergency situations. Those who do not know how to control their psyche, most often find themselves helpless in the face of impending disaster. Fear and panic paralyze the will and consciousness of a person, cause disorderly, disorganized behavior. In a panic, a person is like a driven animal, which, by its unconscious actions, destroys itself.

Mentally prepared people- these are those who are constantly working to increase their attention, develop their sensations (especially visual and auditory), improve their memory, thinking, control over emotions and will. The science of psychology, which you met in biology classes, can offer many exercises to develop all of the listed qualities in a person. However, it is important not only to know and want, but also to engage in psychological improvement, Because it is on this that your ability to survive in various dangerous situations.

Temperament is the basis of human character. Psychologists under temperament They understand the characteristics of a person by the intensity, speed, pace and rhythm of his mental processes and states.

Allocate 4 main types of a person by temperament.

sanguine- a person is balanced, active, mobile, easily experiencing troubles and failures, practical;

Phlegmatic person- a person with slow reactions, imperturbable, constant in his feelings, measured in actions and speech;

Choleric- a person excitable, impulsive, unrestrained in emotions, with frequent mood swings, speaking quickly;

melancholic- a person with a weak type of nervous system, very impressionable, touchy, deeply worried about everything, but able to subtly feel and perceive more information than others, which makes him tired faster.

The images of the musketeers from the famous novel by A. Dumas "The Three Musketeers" have long become classic in practical psychology. Therefore, in order to determine the 1st swap type of temperament, decide which kyu you like best of the 4 musketeers, if the eccentric and romantic d "Artagnanlo you are most likely a choleric: if the silent, reserved and mysterious Athos, then the melancholic: friendly, self-sufficient and balanced Porthos - phlegmatic: restrained, purposeful and reasonable Aramis - sanguine

In emergency situations, people can behave differently depending on their temperament. For example, in dangerous situations Choleric He will start to thrash about, get nervous and, if he cannot control himself, will most likely succumb to panic. melancholic Falls into deep despondency and begins to imagine possible terrible pictures of what could happen. It. usually prevents him from making the right decision. Phlegmatic person Because of his inhibition, he most often underestimates the danger. sanguine Most likely, he will be able to quickly overcome his fear and even find the strength to make fun of what is happening. But at the same time, he lacks sensitivity to his neighbors.

But if temperament is given to us by nature, then character is that. what we create in ourselves. The older a person is, the more life experience he has, the more the formation of his character depends on himself. Therefore, if in case of any, even the most insignificant danger, you are used to avoiding responsibility, constantly hiding behind someone's back, then you are developing a dependent character. And in case of danger, when no one is around, he can let you down. Learn to make decisions and act competently on your own in emergency situations!

Any emergencies of a natural or man-made nature are frightening, first of all, to those. that they are usually sudden. It is impossible to get used to emergencies and completely protect yourself from them. Almost all the people who survived them. have severe psychological trauma. But nonetheless, Remember:You can help yourself survive if you counter the emergency with your knowledge, skills, willpower, character and abilities! A way out of an emergency situation, if it did develop, must be found. The main thing is to have confidence in this. But it cannot be brought up either by a book, or a film, or a conversation, even though both and the third will be beneficial. It takes experimentation and experience.

From the media, from this and other books, you get knowledge about certain emergency situations, about the rules of safe behavior in the event of a threat of their occurrence and during their action. If a person assumes in advance the possibility of a particular emergency situation, thinks out the course of action, then when such a situation arises, this person feels more confident and calmer.

However, sometimes the destructive power of natural disasters, the consequences of emergency situations are so great that even battered, hardened, psychologically trained people sometimes find it difficult to cope with their emotions and feelings. Therefore, with a threat to life and health, a person, regardless of the nature and type of temperament, can survive panic attacks to one degree or another. During a panic in fear, people can commit ridiculous and sometimes dangerous actions for themselves and those around them, they cannot consciously take measures for self-rescue and mutual assistance.

Panic It has both physiological and psychological manifestations. To Physical manifestations of panic Relate:

Strong heartbeat:

Profuse sweating:

Vomiting and indigestion (so-called "bear disease");

Chest tightness, inability to breathe deeply;

Trembling all over;

Numbness of the limbs and tingling in the body;

Poor sleep or insomnia;

Muscle tension and pain;

Fast fatiguability. Psychological manifestations of panic are:

clouding of consciousness, feeling like you are going crazy;

Unrealistic perception of what is happening; the body becomes as if not yours;

Feeling like you are dying or about to die;

nervousness; a person is on the first stage of a psychological breakdown;

fearfulness;

A person cannot concentrate or even disconnect from what is happening.

Remember:Panic can be dealt with! Learn to do the following exercises:

Relax the muscles of the face, limbs, the whole body;

Breathe calmly and deeply:

Inspire yourself with the desired state (there are other exercises that you will learn in biology lessons).

The mental state of people in emergency situations is characterized as stressful. Stress- this is a state of the body that occurs under the influence of significant in strength or duration of adverse effects (the so-called "stressors").

To adverse effects of various kinds, causing strong negative emotions, experiences, unrest (fear, humiliation, pain, illness - one's own and loved ones, loss, death of loved ones, social upheavals, epidemics, disasters), the body responds with an appropriate reaction. Stress is a phenomenon in which both psychological and physiological mechanisms are intertwined. The creator of the theory of stress, Canadian scientist G. Selye, defines it as a set of genetically programmed non-specific reactions of the body that primarily prepare the individual for physical activity (resistance or flight).

With weak negative effects on the body that do not cause a negative reaction, a person can cope with the usual protective actions. Stress occurs when the influence of the stimulus (stressor) exceeds the adaptive capabilities of the body and psyche.

Physiological mechanism of stress It consists in. that under the influence of a strong stimulus, certain hormones are released into the blood. Under their influence, the mode of operation of the heart changes, blood pressure rises, the pulse rate increases, the protective properties of the body change (for example, blood clotting increases). Psychological mechanism of stress It manifests itself in the need to make a particularly responsible decision, a sharp change in the strategy of behavior, etc.

There are 3 stages in the development of stress:

1. Anxiety stage. It lasts from several hours to 20 days. Includes Phases of shock And Countercurrent. During

The last phase is the mobilization of the body's defenses and capabilities.

2. resistance stage. It is characterized by increased resistance of the organism to various influences.

3. Stage of stabilization (recovery). If the level of stress exceeds the protective reserve capacity, then the state of the body may deteriorate until it dies.

Unfortunately, stress is an integral part of our lives. Sometimes it is simply impossible to avoid its occurrence. However, the degree of response to it various people different. Some react actively to stress, their performance continues to grow up to a certain limit (the so-called "lion stress"), while others have a predominantly passive reaction, and the level of activity drops sharply ("rabbit stress").

Often the process of waiting for danger turns out to be much more unpleasant, exhausting, requiring great tension than the danger itself. It has been proven that when there is a lot of stress in a person's life, the reserves and protective capabilities of his body are gradually reduced. As a result, a number of so-called psychosomatic diseases develop (hypertension, peptic ulcer, cardiovascular disease, cardiac arrhythmia, up to a heart attack and stroke).

Special studies have allowed psychologists to describe various forms of stress manifestations in people after they have experienced emergency situations.

Hysterics It manifests itself in a sharp motor excitement: a person moves quickly or even runs without any visible goal; makes incomprehensible sounds, shouts something, exclaims; laughs or weeps bitterly at every little thing; becomes aggressive, overexcited; quickly aroused.

Stupor - the second, no less common form of behavior of people in emergency situations. This reaction to stress manifests itself in the form of immobilization, stupor. A person who is in a stupor is often silent, stands or sits motionless, hunched over, crouching. The gaze is directed to nowhere.

Apathy Or Depression It manifests itself in a person in lethargy, sleep disturbance, loss of appetite, increased irritability, in complete indifference to everything that happens. A person who is in a state of apathy suffers from dizziness, often faints.

If there are no professional psychologists nearby who can help people return to normal health and behavior, then they must do it themselves. In addition, in an extreme situation, the human body reveals its hidden capabilities - unusual physical endurance, strength, endurance. This is a kind defensive reaction organism to a stressful situation.

It is known, for example, that a person in ordinary life uses the intellectual and physical capabilities of his body only by 10-20%. There are cases in history when, at critical moments in life, the human body showed remarkable capabilities: a young mother raised with bare hands huge floor slabs to get your child out of the rubble; soldier-ar gillerist during the Great Patriotic War one dragged an artillery gun to high mountain, whereas in a normal situation, a special tractor moved the gun with difficulty; an elderly woman carried a chest of drawers from a burning house, which, after a fire, was hardly lifted by 2 men.

To make it easier to cope with your mental state in an emergency and not succumb to panic, you must follow the following rules.

Don't despair when you're alone or surrounded by people in the same mental state;

Provide all possible assistance to adults in the aftermath of emergencies (in clearing debris, providing first aid, etc.), this will distract you, especially if people close to you have suffered as a result of an emergency. Remember:caring for someone- Here is salvation in a difficult psychological situation!

Spend more time in the company of those who endured the danger more easily, engage in joint work with them;

Organize the daily routine;

Avoid the one who sows panic, talks about the hopelessness of the situation, try to isolate the alarmist;

If you still find yourself alone, then voice everything that happens around you, express your thoughts aloud (the so-called "Chukchi method"); if you can't speak, write; Speak out yourself and let someone who also finds himself in a similar situation speak out;

Engage in psychological training to improve your will and ability to manage your emotions.

Try to understand your own and forgive other people's mistakes;

Decide on your life values and priorities Assess your strengths and weaknesses, set yourself worthy but realistic goals Sometimes incredible efforts are spent on the wrong goals,

Be more tolerant and generous with the actions of others Avoid uncomfortable life situations and people with whom you do not like to communicate Life is too short to waste time on them1

Enjoy communicating with active people, feeling the energy they radiate1

Trust yourself, appreciate your life successes even if they are very few

5.1. The concept of the human environment. Normal and extreme conditions

habitat. Survival

5.1.1. The concept of human habitat

A person during his life is surrounded by objects of the material world, which make up surrounding a person environment, or human habitat (living environment). It consists of inanimate (earth, water, plants, buildings, tools, etc.) and animate (people, animals, etc.) objects.

The content of the human habitat depends on the place, time and conditions. The human environment in the southern regions of the country differs from that in northern regions due to differences in climatic conditions. At the same time, the climate itself changes over time, the temperature of the atmospheric air - during the year and day. Differences in the habitat in everyday life and at work are especially significant.

The living environment of a person is determined by the conditions of a person’s stay in his home, in the bosom of nature (rest, work on a personal plot, etc.), in public places, on the street, in transport, if this is not related to the performance of a person’s official duties.

The production environment of a person is determined by the working conditions of a person in production, in an organization, or an institution. In most cases, the conditions of the production environment are less favorable for humans than domestic ones. However, in some cases, the impact on a person of some factors of these environments may be close. For example, the impact solar radiation per person relaxing in the sun is close to that of a worker doing outdoor work at the same latitudes and under the same weather conditions.

In the process of human life, the environment has a certain influence on him. For example, atmospheric air can heat or cool the human body, a falling object can cause injury. Long-term environmental impacts of the same nature eventually cause certain changes in the human body, and under their influence a person adapts to the environment, changing physiologically and psychologically.

From the point of view of human impact, the environment can be represented as consisting of factors that are divided into natural (natural) and anthropogenic, or artificial, generated by human activity. In the historical aspect, in the beginning there were only natural factors. Later, anthropogenic factors began to join them.

A number of human habitat factors can have an adverse effect on it.

Natural unfavorable factors are essential in the domestic environment. For everyday life, for example, it is important climatic factor, which largely determines the conditions of indoor living and outdoor recreation. Of great importance is the aquatic environment that supplies a person drinking water, which irrigates gardens, but at the same time can bring with it great destruction and casualties (floods, storms at sea, etc.). Equally important in everyday life are the effects of harmful natural substances (dust, poisonous gases, etc.), the temperature factor (burns, frostbite), etc.

With development human society the role of anthropogenic adverse factors is increasing. At present, they are as important as natural factors. Suffice it to recall the defeats from electric current, the fall of people with their own erected structures, gas poisoning, including carbon monoxide, and many other examples. In the mining industry, for example, rock falls in workings as a result of human activity in the bowels of the earth, as well as vehicles in mines, are the main danger: they account for about half of the fatal accidents that occur in coal mines.

What environmental factors are unfavorable for the human body? When answering this question, it is necessary to proceed from the following.

The development of the human body adapted (adapted) it to certain average values of environmental factors and to a certain range of their change relative to average values. But in the course of the life of an organism, it is also possible for the values of environmental factors to go beyond the usual limits for it. The body is not accustomed to such values. The greater the deviation of the factor values from the usual limits, the more unfavorable it is. We come to the conclusion that the environmental factor is unfavorable, the values of which periodically, but not often, go beyond the habitual for given organism range of its values. For example, for the inhabitants of the middle latitudes of Russia, the outside air temperature is from +20°C to -20°C. Their body has adapted to this temperature diagnosis and in such temperature conditions it functions normally, on average, a person feels comfort (convenience). The temperature of + 30 ° C or - 25 ° C is already perceived uncomfortable, and with large deviations from the usual temperature range, a person may experience adverse consequences. Therefore, in this example Temperatures above +25°C and below -20°C can be considered as unfavorable values for the temperature factor. If deviations in the range from +25°С to -20°С are regular, but small (for example, deviations from the upper limit of usual temperatures by +5°С and from the lower limit by -5°С), a person gets used to them and they expand the range comfortable temperatures. Hence the conclusion follows: in principle, any environmental factor can be unfavorable. For example, oxygen in atmospheric air is essential for human life. Its content in the air is about 21%, and the human body is adapted to such a content. With a significant decrease (increase) in the oxygen content in the air, a person begins to change the functions of a number of organs, which can lead to serious disorders and even death. Thus, oxygen is a favorable factor for human life, if its content is within 21%, with a significant deficiency or excess, it becomes an unfavorable factor. A similar example can be given with atmospheric pressure: normal atmospheric pressure is favorable for a person, its values, which differ significantly from normal, make atmospheric pressure an unfavorable factor.

Therefore, we should not talk about favorable environmental factors, but about unfavorable values of factors. The nature and degree of influence on a living organism of one or another environmental factor depends on the quantitative value of this factor. The further the value of the factor under consideration is from the zone of its comfortable values, the more unfavorable the effect of the factor on the living organism.

5.1.2. Normal and extreme living conditions. Survival

Comfortable or close to them values of human environmental factors take place, as a rule, in normal human life, in peacetime. They are often referred to as normal living conditions.

Normal life-giving conditions provide for the life support of the population for a normal life, life in peacetime. Almost every Russian lives in these conditions.

In the event of emergencies, people in the emergency zone may find themselves without shelter, water, food and medical care. In most cases, it is extremely difficult to solve the most important issues of life support for the affected population in these extreme conditions promptly and in the required volumes, because the supply system will be destroyed or its ability to fully meet all the needs of the victims will be insufficient.

In such cases, it turns out to be important to establish a priority life support for people, which at first provides for the satisfaction of only the physiological needs of a person, primarily in food.

In addition, in individual emergencies in the initial period of their occurrence, even the physiological needs of a person for energy cannot be satisfied. There are difficulties with housing, water, cooking, medical care etc. Similar difficulties can also occur under other circumstances, when a person, regardless of the planned actions and the route of movement, geographical location, is cut off from the outside world and must rely only on himself. This is the extreme conditions of human life. For a person who is in extreme conditions, the desire to survive is natural, i.e. save your life.

The behavior of a person left to himself in extreme conditions, the purpose of which is to save his life, is survival.

Extreme conditions in which a person is fighting for survival are characterized by: the absence or lack of food (food); lack or shortage of drinking water; exposure to low or high temperatures on the human body.

Food provides the body's needs for energy and the functioning of all human organs and systems.

The composition of food should include proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins.

Proteins form the basis of every living cell, every tissue of the body. Therefore, a continuous supply of protein is absolutely necessary for the growth and repair of tissues, as well as the formation of new cells. The most valuable proteins are meat, milk, eggs and vegetables, primarily potatoes and cabbage and some cereals - oatmeal, rice, buckwheat.

Fats and carbohydrates are the main sources of energy and determine mainly the calorie content of food. Animal fats are considered more complete than vegetable fats. The most useful fats contained in milk, cream, sour cream. Carbohydrates are especially rich in cereals, vegetables, fruits, a certain amount of carbohydrates is found in milk.

Vitamins are necessary for the proper growth and development of the body, for the normal functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, neuromuscular apparatus, vision, etc. The most important for the body is vitamin C, vitamins of group B, vitamins A, D, E.

In addition, the composition of food should include minerals (calcium, magnesium, phosphorus) necessary for the skeletal system, as well as cardiac and skeletal muscles. The need for them is fully covered if the food consists of a variety of products of animal and vegetable origin.

In the human body, processes of oxidation (combination with oxygen) of physical food substances (proteins, fats, carbohydrates) are continuously occurring, accompanied by the formation and release of heat. This heat is necessary for all life processes, it is spent on heating the released air, on maintaining body temperature, thermal energy ensures the activity of the muscular system. The more muscle movements a person makes, the more he consumes oxygen, and, consequently, the more he produces costs, but more food is needed to cover them.

Needs for a certain amount food is usually expressed in heat units - calories. Minimal amount food, which is necessary to maintain the human body in a normal state, is determined by its needs at rest. These are human physiological needs.

The World Health Organization has established that the physiological needs of a person for energy are about 1600 kcal per day. The real energy needs are much higher, depending on the intensity of labor, they exceed the indicated norm by 1.4-2.5 times.

Starvation is a state of the body in the complete absence or insufficiency of the intake of nutrients.

Distinguish between absolute, complete and incomplete starvation.

Absolute starvation is characterized by a complete lack of intake of nutrients - food and water.

Complete fasting is starvation when a person is deprived of all food, but is not limited in water consumption.

Partial starvation occurs when, with sufficient quantitative nutrition, a person does not receive some nutrients with food - vitamins, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, etc.

With complete starvation, the body is forced to switch to internal self-sufficiency, consuming fat reserves, muscle protein, etc. It is estimated that a person of average weight has energy reserves of approximately 160 thousand kcal, 40-45% of which he can spend on internal self-sufficiency without a direct threat to his existence. This is 65-70 thousand kcal. Thus, spending 1600 kcal per day, a person is able to live about 40 days in conditions of complete immobility and lack of food, and taking into account the implementation motor functions- about 30 days. Although there are cases when people did not eat for 40.50 and even 60 days and survived.

In the initial period of fasting, which usually lasts 2-4 days, there is a strong feeling of hunger, a person constantly thinks about food. Appetite rises sharply, sometimes there is a burning sensation, pain in the pancreas, nausea. Dizziness, headaches, stomach cramps are possible. When drinking water, salivation increases. In the first four days, a person's weight decreases by an average of one kilogram daily, and in areas with a hot climate - up to 1.5 kg. Then the daily losses decrease.

In the future, the feeling of hunger weakens. Appetite disappears, sometimes a person even experiences some cheerfulness. The tongue is often covered with a whitish coating, and the smell of acetone can be felt in the mouth. Salivation does not increase, even at the sight of food. There is poor sleep, prolonged headaches, irritability increases. A person falls into apathy, lethargy, drowsiness, weakens.

Hunger undermines the strength of a person from the inside and reduces the body's resistance to external factors. A hungry person freezes several times faster than a full one. He gets sick more often and endures the course of the disease more difficult. His mental activity weakens, his working capacity drops sharply.

Water. Lack of water leads to a decrease in body weight, a significant loss of strength, thickening of the blood and, as a result, an overstrain of the heart, which expends additional effort to push the thickened blood through the vessels. At the same time, the concentration of salts in the blood rises, which serves as a formidable signal that dehydration has begun. Dehydration of the body by 15% or more can lead to irreversible consequences, to death. If a person deprived of food can lose almost the entire supply of tissue, almost 50% of proteins, and only after that approach the dangerous line, then the loss of 15% of the fluid is fatal. Starvation can last several weeks, and a person deprived of water dies in a matter of days, and in a hot climate - even hours.

The need of the human body for water in favorable climatic conditions does not exceed 2.5-3 liters per day.

It is important to distinguish true water hunger from the apparent one. Very often, the feeling of thirst arises not because of an objective lack of water, but because of improperly organized water consumption. Therefore, it is not recommended to drink a lot of water in one gulp - this will not quench your thirst, but can lead to swelling, weakness. Sometimes it is enough to rinse your mouth with cold water.

With intense sweating, leading to leaching of salts from the body, it is advisable to drink slightly salted water - 0.5-1.0 g of salt per 1 liter of water.

Cold. According to statistics, from 10 to 15% of people who died in various extreme conditions became victims of hypothermia.

The wind plays a decisive role in human survival in low temperatures. At an actual air temperature of 3 0 С and a wind speed of 10 m/s, the total cooling caused by the combined effect of the actual air temperature and the wind is equivalent to the effect of a temperature of –20 0 С. And a wind of 18 m/s turns a frost of 45 0 С into a frost of 90 0 C in the absence of wind.

In areas devoid of natural shelters (forest, relief folds), low temperatures in conjunction with strong wind can shorten human survival to a few hours.

Long-term survival at sub-zero temperatures also depends largely on the condition of clothes and shoes, the quality of the built shelter, fuel and food supplies, and the moral and physical condition of a person.

Clothing is capable of protecting a person from the cold in extreme conditions only for a short time, yet sufficient for the construction of a shelter (even a snow one). The heat-shielding properties of clothing depend primarily on the type of fabric. Finely porous fabric retains heat best of all - the more microscopic air bubbles are enclosed between the fibers of the fabric, the closer they are to each other, the less such a fabric transmits heat from the inside and cold from the outside. There are a lot of air pores in woolen fabrics - the total volume of pores in them reaches 92%; and in smooth, linen - about 50%.

By the way, the heat-shielding properties of fur clothing are explained by the same effect of air pores. Each villus of fur is a small hollow cylinder with an air bubble "sealed" inside it. Hundreds of thousands of such elastic microcones make up a fur coat.

AT recent times clothes made of synthetic materials and fillers such as synthetic winterizer, nitron, etc. have found wide application. Here, air capsules are enclosed in the thinnest shell of artificial fibers. Synthetic clothing is slightly inferior to fur in terms of warmth, but it is very light, does not impede movement, and is almost not felt on the body. It is not blown by the wind, snow does not stick to it, it gets wet a little.

The most optimal clothing option is multi-layered clothing from different fabrics - best of all from 4-5 layers.

Shoes play a very important role in winter emergencies, because 90% of all frostbite occurs on the lower extremities.

By all available means, we must strive to keep shoes, socks, footcloths dry. To do this, you can make shoe covers from improvised material, wrap your legs with a piece of loose fabric, etc.

Refuge. Clothing, no matter how warm it is, can protect a person from the cold only for hours, rarely for days. No clothing can protect a person from death if a warm shelter is not built in time.

Cloth tents, shelters from the rubble Vehicle, wood, metal in the absence of a stove will not save you from the cold. After all, when building shelters from traditional materials, it is almost impossible to achieve hermetic sealing of seams and joints. The shelters are blown through by the wind. Warm air escapes through numerous cracks, therefore, in the absence of stoves, stoves and other highly efficient heating devices, the air temperature inside the shelter is almost always equal to the outside.

An excellent shelter in winter can be built from snow, and very quickly - in 1.5-2 hours. In a properly built snow shelter, the air temperature rises to minus 5-10 0 C only due to the heat emitted by a person at 30-40 degree frost outside. With the help of a candle, the temperature in the shelter can be raised from 0 to 4-5 0 C and above. Many polar explorers, having installed a couple of stoves inside, heated the air up to +30 0 C!

The main advantage of snow shelters is the ease of construction - they can be built by anyone who has never held a tool in his hands.

5.2. Major Human Factors Contributing to Survival

Will to live. With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a subconscious level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation. In extreme conditions, with long-term survival, the instinct of self-preservation is gradually lost, sooner or later a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference, he is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food supplies. 90% of people who find themselves on life-saving equipment after a shipwreck die within three days from moral factors. More than once, rescuers filmed from boats or rafts found in the ocean, dead people in the presence of food and flasks of water.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-survival, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical reactions - a psychogenic damaging factor acts. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful. This is the will to live, when the desire to survive should be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity. The will to live implies first of all actions. Willlessness is inaction. One cannot passively expect help from the outside, one must take actions to protect oneself from adverse factors, to help others.

General physical training, hardening. The usefulness of general physical training for a person who finds himself in an extreme situation does not need to be proved. In an extreme situation, strength, and endurance, and hardenedness are needed. These physical properties cannot be acquired under conditions of extreme training. This takes months. Servicemen-rescuers acquire them during physical exercises, tactical and special training, as well as during individual lessons in certain sports in their free time.

Knowledge of self-rescue techniques. The basis of long-term survival is solid knowledge in the most knowledge - recipes for cooking dishes from caterpillars and tree bark.

A box of matches will not save a person from freezing if he does not know how to properly build a fire in winter or in the rain. Wrong rendered first health care only aggravates the condition of the victim. It is tempting to have comprehensive knowledge of self-rescue in any climatic zone of the country, in any extreme situations. But this is associated with the assimilation of a large amount of information. Therefore, in practice, it is enough to confine ourselves to studying a specific climatic zone and possible extreme situations in it. However, it is important to study in advance those self-rescue techniques that are suitable for any climatic zone, typical extreme situations: orienteering, determining the time, making fire in primitive ways, organizing a camp, preserving food, "extracting" water, first aid, overcoming water obstacles etc. We must remember the motto: "To know is to be able, to be able is to survive!".

Survival skills. Knowledge of survival techniques must be supported by survival skills. Survival skills are acquired by practice. Having, for example, a weapon, but not possessing the skills of hunting, one can die of hunger with an abundance of game. When mastering the skills of survival, one should not "scatter around", trying to immediately master the entire amount of information on a particular issue of interest. It is better to be able to do less, but better. It is not necessary to practically master the construction of all types of snow shelters (there are about 20 of them), it is enough to be able to build three or four shelters of various designs.

Proper organization of rescue operations. The survival of a group that finds itself in an extreme situation largely depends on the organization of rescue operations. It is unacceptable for each member of the group to do only what he considers necessary for himself in this moment time. Collective survival allows you to save the life of each member of the group, individual - leads to the death of everyone.

The work within the camp should be distributed by the head of the group in accordance with the strengths and capabilities of each. Physically strong, especially men, should be entrusted with the most labor-intensive work - arranging firewood, building shelters, etc. Weakened, women and children should be given work that is time-consuming, but does not require much physical effort - maintaining a fire, drying and repairing clothes, collecting food, etc. At the same time, the importance of each work, regardless of the labor costs invested in it, should be emphasized.

All work should, as far as possible, be carried out at a calm pace with an even expenditure of energy. Sudden overloads followed by a long rest, irregular work lead to a rapid exhaustion of forces, to the irrational expenditure of the body's energy reserves.

With the proper organization of work, the expenditure of forces of each member of the group will be approximately the same, which is extremely important with a ration, that is, an equal diet for everyone.

5.3. Survival in the natural environment

5.3.1. Fundamentals and tactics of survival in the natural environment

The basics of survival in the natural environment are solid knowledge in a wide variety of areas, from the basics of astronomy and medicine, to recipes for cooking from non-traditional "products" that may be in the place of survival - tree bark, plant roots, frogs, insects, etc. d. It is necessary to be able to navigate without a compass, give distress signals, be able to build a shelter from bad weather, light a fire, provide yourself with water, protect yourself from wild animals and insects, etc.

Of great importance is the choice of tactics for survival in the natural environment.

In conditions of survival, three types of human behavior are possible, three tactics of survival - passive survival, active survival, a combination of passive and active survival.

passive survival tactics- this is waiting for the help of rescuers at the scene of an accident or in its immediate vicinity, the construction of housing facilities, the equipment of landing sites, the extraction of food, etc.

The tactics of passive waiting justifies itself in cases of accidents, forced landings of vehicles, the disappearance of which involves the organization of rescue operations to locate and rescue the victims. It is applied in situations where there is absolute certainty that the missing will be searched for and when it is known for certain that the rescue units know the approximate area of the location of the victims.

Passive survival tactics are also chosen when among the victims there is a non-transportable patient or several seriously ill patients; when the group of victims is dominated by women, children and unprepared for action, poorly equipped people; under especially difficult climatic conditions, excluding the possibility of active movement.

Active Survival Tactics- this is an independent exit of accident victims or rescuers to the nearest settlement, to people. It can be used in cases where the hope of an ambulance is excluded; when it is possible to establish your location and there is confidence in reaching the nearest settlements. Active survival is also used in cases where there is a need to urgently leave the original place due to severe weather and other factors and start looking for an area convenient for passive survival. Active survival is also used in the event of evacuation of victims from the disaster area.

In some cases, combined, that is, including an active and passive form of survival tactics, is possible. In this case, a long-term camp (bivouac) is organized by the joint efforts of the victims, after which a route group is created from among the most prepared. The purpose of the route group is to reach the nearest settlement as soon as possible and, with the help of local search and rescue services, organize the evacuation of the rest of the group.

5.3.2. Location orientation. Orientation by sun and stars

A. Determining the sides of the horizon during the day

If you do not have a compass, you can determine the approximate direction of the north from the sun (and knowing where the north is - all the other sides of the horizon). Below is a method by which you can, at any time when the sun is shining brightly enough, determine the sides of the horizon from the shadow of the pole (Fig. 5.1).

Find a straight pole one meter long and do the following:

1. Drive the pole into the ground on a flat area free from vegetation, on which the shadow is clearly visible. The pole does not have to be vertical. Tilting it to get the best shadow (in size and direction) does not affect the accuracy of this method.

2. Mark the end of the shadow with a small peg, stick, stone, branch, your own finger, a hole in the snow, or any other means. Wait until the end of the shadow has moved a few centimeters. With a pole length of one meter, you need to wait 10-15 minutes.

3. Mark the end of the shadow again.

4. Draw a straight line from the first mark to the second mark and extend it approximately 30 cm beyond the second mark.

5. Stand so that the toe of the left foot is at the first mark, and the toe of the right foot is at the end of the drawn line.

6. You are now facing north. Define the other sides of the horizon. To mark directions on the ground (for orienting others), draw a line crossing the first in the form of a cross (+), and mark the sides of the horizon. The basic rule when determining the sides of the horizon. If you are still not sure whether to put your left foot or right foot on the first mark (see paragraph 5), remember the basic rule that distinguishes east from west.

The sun always rises on the east and sets on the west (but rarely exactly east and exactly west). The shadow moves in the opposite direction. Therefore, in any place on the globe, the first mark of the shadow will always be in the western direction, and the second - in the East.

For an approximate determination of the north, you can use an ordinary clock (Fig. 5.2).

In the northern temperate zone, clocks are set so that the hour hand points to the sun. The north-south line lies between the hour hand and the number 12. This refers to standard time. If the hour hand is set one hour ahead, then the north-south line runs between the hour hand and the number 1. In summer, when the clock hands are moved another hour forward, the number 2 should be taken into account instead of the number 1. If you are in doubt which side line is north, remember that the sun in the Northern Hemisphere is in the eastern part of the sky before noon, and in the western part of the afternoon. The clock can also be used to determine the sides of the horizon in the southern temperate zone, but in a slightly different way than in the northern zone. Here the number 12 should be directed to the sun, and then the line N-S will pass in the middle between the number 12 and the hour hand. When moving the hour hand one hour ahead, the N-S line lies between the hour hand and the number 1 or 2. In both hemispheres, the temperate zones are between 23 and 66 ° north or south latitude. In cloudy weather, put a stick to the center of the clock and hold it so that the shadow from it falls clockwise. In the middle between the shadow and the number 12, the direction to the north will pass.

Rice. 5.1. Determination of the direction to the north by the shadow of the pole.

Rice. 5.2. Determination of the direction to the north with the help of a clock.

You can also navigate by the constellation Cassiopeia. This is a constellation of five bright stars shaped like an oblique M (or W when low). The North Star is right in the center, almost in a straight line from the central star of this constellation, about the same distance from it. as well as from the Big Dipper. Cassiopeia also rotates slowly around the North Star and is always almost opposite the Big Dipper. This position of this constellation is of great help for orientation in the case when Ursa Major is low and may not be visible due to vegetation or high local objects.

In the Southern Hemisphere, you can determine the direction to the south and from here all other directions can be determined by the constellation of the Southern Cross. This group of four bright stars is shaped like a cross tilted to one side. The two stars that form the long axis or rod of the cross are called "pointers". From the base of the cross, mentally extend a distance five times the length of the cross itself and find an imaginary point; it will serve as the direction to the south (Fig. 5.4.). From this point look straight at the horizon and choose a landmark.

Rice. 5.5. Determination of the direction to the north by the anthill, annual rings and moss on the stones.

The most accurate are astronomical methods for determining the cardinal points. Therefore, they should be used in the first place. Use all others only as a last resort - in conditions of poor visibility, inclement weather.

5.3.3. Definition of time

The method of determining the north direction by shadow (Fig. 5.6) can be used to determine the approximate time of day. This is done in the following way:

1. Move the pole to the point where the east-west and north-south lines intersect and place it vertically on the ground. Anywhere in the world Western part line corresponds to 6.00 hours, and the eastern part -18.00.

2. Now the N-S line becomes the noon line. The shadow of the pole is like the hour hand on a sundial, and with its help you can tell the time. Depending on your location and time of year, the shadow can move either clockwise or counterclockwise, but this does not interfere with the determination of time.

3. A sundial is not a clock in the usual sense. The duration of the "hour" varies throughout the year, but it is usually assumed that 6.00 always corresponds to sunrise, and 18.00 to sunset. However, a sundial is quite suitable for determining the time in the absence of a real clock or for setting the clock correctly.

Determining the time of day is very important for scheduling a meeting, conducting a planned concerted action by individuals or groups, determining the remaining length of the day before dark, and so on. 12:00 solar time will always actually be noon, however, other hour hand readings compared to normal time vary slightly depending on location and date.

4. The method of determining the sides of the horizon from the clock can give erroneous readings, especially at low latitudes, which can lead to “circling”. To avoid this, set your watch to the sun, and then determine the sides of the horizon from it. This method eliminates 10- the minute wait required to determine the sides of the horizon from the movement of the shadow, and in this time you can get as many readings as needed to avoid "circling".

Rice. 5.6. Determining the time of day from the shadow.

Determining the sides of the horizon in this modified way will correspond to determining the north direction from the shadow of the pole. The degree of accuracy of both methods is the same.