Titus Lucretius car years of life. Lucretius car. Everything wraps around with streams of bright light

Lucretius Titus Carus (c. 99/55 BC) - ancient Roman philosopher, poet. Epicureanism became for Lucretius the main philosophical, ethical and worldview doctrine, on which he relied in his work, trying to continue its development. In philosophical works he adhered to the materialistic direction ("On the nature of things").

Guryeva T.N. New literary dictionary / T.N. Guriev. - Rostov n / a, Phoenix, 2009, p. 161.

Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Car) (c. 99-55 BC) - Roman poet and materialist philosopher, successor of Epicurus, author of the poem "On the Nature of Things." The aim of philosophy is to show the way to fortunately possible for a person thrown into the whirlpool of social struggle and disasters, oppressed by fears: before the gods, death, afterlife punishment. The means of liberation from them is the assimilation of the teachings of Epicurus about the nature of things, about man, about society. The soul, according to L., is mortal, since it is only a temporary combination of special particles and, after the death of the body, breaks up into separate atoms. The knowledge of the mortality of the soul excludes belief not only in the afterlife, but also in the afterlife punishment, frees a person from the fear of hell. The fear of death is also eliminated: as long as we are alive, there is no death; death has come - we are not. Finally, the fear of the gods dissipates as soon as we learn that the gods do not live in our world, but in the empty spaces between the worlds: leading a blissful life there, they cannot have any influence on the fate of man. L. gave a vivid materialistic image and explanation of the world, human nature, the development of material culture and technology. The poem of Lucretius had a huge impact on the development of the philosophy of the Renaissance.

Philosophical Dictionary. Ed. I.T. Frolova. M., 1991, p. 232.

Lucretius Car Titus (Titus Lucretius Carus) (b. between 99-95 - mind. 55 BC) - ancient Roman poet and philosopher. The author of the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things" ("De rerum natura"), in which he promotes the materialistic teachings of Epicurus, mainly his natural philosophy, aiming to free man from the yoke of religion. According to Lucretius Carus, matter is infinite and eternal, consists of atoms and constantly develops according to internal laws, without the intervention of the gods. Feelings are the source of knowledge. Lucretius Carus, unlike most ancient authors, considers the initial state of mankind not a "golden" age, but a period of savagery. Lucretius Carus sees the basis of progress in the need to work out of need, and explains the origin of laws by the agreement of people. Without reflecting specific historical events and limiting itself to hints of civil unrest in the 1st century BC. e., Lucretius Car at the same time passionately protests against violence, profit, luxury and other ulcers of the slave society. But these performances by Lucretius Cara are combined with calls for a contemplative life outside of society, and the clash of the general humanistic ideals of Lucretius Cara with reality gives rise to notes of pessimism in the poem.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 8, KOSHALA - MALTA. 1965.

Compositions: Über die Natur der Dinge, hrsg. von G. Klaus, Ubers. von H. Diels, B., 1957; De la nature. Texte établi et traduit par A. Ermont, 2nd ed., P., 1959; in Russian transl.: On the nature of things, ed. lat. text and trans. F. A. Petrovsky, vol. 1-2, M.-L., 1946-47; new ed. - M., 1958.

Literature: Vavilov S. I., Physics of Lucretia, "IAN USSR", 1946, vol. 3, No 1; Deratani N. P., To the question of the source. concepts in the poem L., "VDI", 1951, No 3; Kublanov M. M., Atheistic views of L., in the book: Yearbook of the Museum of the History of Religion and Atheism, (vol.) 3, M.-L., 1959, p. 377-98; Sikes, E. E., Lucretius, poet and philosopher, Camb., 1936.

Lucretius, Titus Lucretius Carus (Titus Lucretius Carus) (1st century BC), Roman poet and materialist philosopher. The earliest biographical data about Lucretia date back to the 4th century. n. e., but cannot be considered reliable. The philosophical poem of Lucretius "On the Nature of Things", written in the form of a didactic epic, expounds the teachings of the Greek philosopher Epicurus- Ch. arr. his physics, touching only incidentally on his theory of knowledge and ethics. This is the only completely preserved monument of the materialistic thought of antiquity. The poem of Lucretius consists of 6 books; in book. 1st and 2nd sets out the atomistic theory of the universe and rejects the intervention of the gods in worldly affairs; book theme. 3rd - the doctrine of the soul, its materiality and mortality, its connection with the body; book. 4th - the doctrine of man and sensory perceptions as the basis of knowledge; book. 5th - cosmogony and the history of the development of the human race, as well as the origin of language. The use of fire and the formation of a family were, according to Lucretius, the first steps on the way from a primitive, "wild" state to the formation of society and culture; this was especially facilitated by the emergence of language. The origin of religion in the book. The 6th is explained by three natural causes: the fantastic images of beautiful and powerful beings that appeared in dreams became the object of worship; phenomena of nature, surpassing human powers, were attributed to supernatural beings; Finally, people are subject to feelings of fear. By choosing a poetic form for his philosophical work, Lucretius revived and made the teachings of Epicurus more convincing. Materialists 17-18 centuries. perceived the atomistic ideas of antiquity ch. arr. Lucretius, the greatest conductor of his ideas was the French philosopher P. Gassendi.

F. A. Petrovsky.

Materials of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia are used. In 30 tons. Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov. Ed. 3rd. T. 15. Lombard - Mesitol. - M., Soviet Encyclopedia. - 1974. - 632 p. .

Lucretius (Lucretius), Titus Lucretius Car (c. 99 / 95 - 55 BC) - ancient Roman poet and materialist philosopher. Almost no biographical information about L. has been preserved (the reports of Jerome and Donat date back to the 4th century AD and are unreliable). In all likelihood, L. received a philosophical education in the Neapolitan Epicurean school, which flourished at that time in Italy, which was then headed by Philodemus. He wrote a philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", in which he expounds the teachings of Epicurus, supplementing and deepening it. In the poem, L. solves primarily educational problems: nature consists of atoms and empty space; in nature, everything happens without the participation of the gods; religion brings only harm to a person, instilling in him the fear of the gods and death. Lucretius Carus gives an explanation of the origin of religion from dreams and ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena. A person should not be afraid of the gods and hell, since the soul disappears with the body. The second part of the poem sets forth the theory of the motion of atoms, which substantiates their deviation from rectilinear motion. The size, shape and movement of atoms are the cause of diversity in the world. In the third - the doctrine of the spiritual nature of man, consisting of spirit and soul, is presented. The soul is material and is formed from air and heat. In the fourth - the atomistic theory of knowledge is stated. Knowledge itself is the means to happiness. The fifth part is devoted to cosmology, and the sixth - to methodology. L. put the principle of causality in the basis of his picture of the world. He also establishes the law of conservation of matter, which is infinite in time and space. As for the origin and development of organisms, L. can be considered the founder of evolutionism, since he is a supporter of the struggle for existence and natural selection. Human culture is also a product of gradual evolution. Society is a product of the mutual agreement of people. Ethics L. is based on the principles of a calm and happy life.

Philosophical Dictionary / ed.-comp. S. Ya. Podoprigora, A. S. Podoprigora. - Ed. 2nd, sr. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2013, pp. 205-206.

Lucretius, Titus Lucretius Car (Titus Lucretius Cams) (c. 99-55 BC), Roman poet, philosopher and educator. The author of the poem "On the Nature of Things", ("De rerum nature"), which continues in its genre the tradition of the ancient Greek philosophical epic (the works of Parmenides and Empedocles), but in content is adjacent to the materialistic system of Epicurus. In the introduction to the 1st book of the poem, Lucretius gives enthusiastic praise to Epicurus and his teachings, which saves humanity from faith in the gods that rule the world, and from the fear of death - the primary source of acquisitions, strife and disasters; the knowledge of nature is the only means capable of destroying superstition (religio). A practical, life-teaching orientation characterizes the entire poem; in the center of it is the doctrine of the mortality of souls, the main problem of the ethics of Epicureanism. The ethical moment is persistently put forward in the introductions to the section. books of the poem and in special excursions. However, the relationship between the ethical and physical parts of the philosophical system in Lucretius is different than that of Epicurus: if materialistic physics and the sensationalist theory of knowledge associated with it are subordinate to ethics in Epicurus, then for Lucretius the atomistic explanation of natural phenomena and the harmonious picture of the world that it makes possible to create acquire an independent aesthetic value. Analyzing the observable world following Epicurus, Lucretius at the same time re-builds it from once and for all comprehended first principles, in all the richness of its forms and colors, and this inexhaustible living diversity appears before him as a single whole, fully understood in its regularity. Moral preaching and the narrative of nature are closely intertwined in Lucretius, who invariably turns to the physical foundations on which they arose for reinforcement of his ethical teachings. This is how Lucretius establishes an inextricable link between the ideas of nature as the totality of the qualities of each individual thing and nature as the bearer of the creative and normative principle (rerum natura creatrix, II 1117). The regularity of natural phenomena, fully explainable by atomistic mechanics, serves for Lucretius as direct evidence of the independence of nature from the arbitrariness of the gods:

“If you understand this properly, nature is free / Immediately appears to you, devoid of arrogant masters, / Creating everything on its own without the participation of the gods” (II 1090 ff.). Refuting the divine control of the world, Lucretius, like Epicurus, does not deny the existence of gods, consisting of the thinnest atoms and residing in interworld spaces in a state of blissful rest and self-satisfaction (II 640-51). Lucretius is far from that serene state to which, according to the teachings of Epicurus, the knowledge of nature should lead a person (II 7-13). The image of nature-builder, stunning him with its greatness, is overshadowed in his worldview by manifestations of her hostility to man. Having eliminated the idea of ​​the arbitrariness of the gods, Lucretius speaks of the “guilty” of nature (II 181), even of some kind of “semblance of a hidden power” that overturns and tramples human affairs (V 1233 ff.). This feature of the worldview of Lucretius is clearly reflected in the description of the epiphany of Athena in 430 BC that concludes the poem. e. destructive epidemics, which contrasts sharply with the beginning of the poem - a jubilant glorification of the creative forces of nature.

The independence of Lucretius as a philosopher is deeply revealed in an episode in the history of human culture, which is the main content of the 5th book. Having taken from the Epicurean tradition a negative assessment of those improvements in the material conditions of life, which, without ultimately increasing the amount of pleasure people receive, serve as a new object of money-grubbing, Lucretius concludes Book 5 not with the Epicurean morality of self-restraint, but with praise to the human mind, which masters the heights of knowledge and arts. in Russian translation: On the nature of things, vol. 1 (text and translation), M.-L., 1946; On the nature of things, entry. Art. F. A. Petrovsky, M., 1958.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983.

Literature: Lucretius K. T., On the nature of things, v. 2 (articles and comments), M. - L., 1947; Gordon C. A., A bibliography of Lucretius, L., 1962; S a 1 l m a n n K. G., Die Natur bei Lukrez, Köln, 1962; Voapse R., Lucrece. Sa vie, son oeuvre, avec un expose de sä philosophic, P., 1964.

Lucretius, Titus Lucretius Carus (Titus Lucretius Carus) (c. 99 - c. 55 BC), Roman poet, author of the didactic epic About nature (De rerum natura). Lucretius is a Roman citizen, possibly of noble birth, judging by the expressions in which he dedicates his work to the prominent statesman Gaius Memmius (praetor in 58 BC). Everything we know about the life of Lucretius comes down to the message of St. Jerome, who, in all likelihood quoting Suetonius, says: "Intoxicated with a love potion, Lucretius lost his mind, in bright intervals he wrote several books later published by Cicero, and took his own life." The story of Lucretius' madness and suicide (which inspired Tennyson's poem Lucretius) and Cicero's role in his literary destiny became the subject of heated debate. In a letter to brother Quintus, written in February 54 BC, i.e. shortly after the death of the poet, Cicero mentions his poem, but only to recognize in it "many glimpses of genius, but also no small art." Perhaps Lucretius led a solitary life, disgusted, as his poem testifies, to the universal pursuit of wealth and power and civil wars that destroyed the Roman Republic.

The poem On Nature is the longest exposition of the philosophy of Epicurus (c. 340–270 BC) that has come down to us. It consists of six books. The first three establish fundamental principles ("Nothing comes from nothing", "Nothing ever perishes"). Further, Lucretius systematically expounds the doctrine of the Universe, consisting of an infinite number of tiny indivisible particles (atoms) and an infinite empty space through which these particles eternally fall. Lucretius also claims that atoms do not have any qualities other than a certain size and shape, and all other properties of objects that we perceive (color, smell, warmth, etc.) arise as a result of various combinations of atoms acting on the human senses. Everything that is formed from atoms, including the earth and sky, the human mind and soul, is subject to destruction, the immortality of the soul is a fabrication. In subsequent books, these principles are applied to explain various phenomena. Book IV is devoted to sight, hearing and other feelings, as well as love passion, which gives the author the opportunity to burst into indignant satire about the madness of lovers. Book V deals with questions of cosmogony, the origin of plants, animals and humans, as well as society and civilization. In Book VI, apparently unfinished, Lucretius refers to phenomena as varied as lightning, magnetism, and volcanoes. The indispensable fundamental idea of ​​the whole presentation is the fundamental principle of Epicurus, which says that the only source of knowledge is sensory perception. Lucretius formulates this idea with complete clarity (book I 422-425, IV 469-521) and confirms the fidelity to this principle by constant appeals to the evidence of the senses, introducing them into the narrative in the form of picturesque paintings from various areas.

Evidently Lucretius found Epicurus' teaching as such interesting and attractive, and believed that its truth could be proved. However, in lyrical digressions, as well as in the introductions and conclusions of individual books, Lucretius makes it clear that he appreciates this physical teaching also as a reliable foundation for moral teaching, according to which only what seems “good” to the senses is good (i.e. good for them). However, Lucretius makes no attempt to resolve moral problems. Being an Epicurean, Lucretius did not need such abstractions as the Platonic "idea of ​​the good" or the "duty" of the Stoics. People appear to the poet as cruel, greedy, blasphemously incapable of enjoying the joys of life, and he regrets their ignorance. Lucretius retained a heightened sensitivity to human suffering, he sympathizes even with a cow that has lost a calf (II 352-366). Lucretius believed that once people were rid of ignorance and the senseless fears and fruitless desires it generated, their innate goodness and capacity for sympathy (cf. V 1019-1023) would be enough to moderate their inherent selfishness, which would make them capable of to taste "a life worthy of the gods" (III 322).

What little we know of the early literature of Epicureanism does not allow us to judge the degree of originality of Lucretius as a thinker. He himself did not at all claim this title, declaring that his goal was to explain to fellow citizens "the mysterious discoveries of the Greeks" (I 136). Lucretius justifies his decision to write in verse with the hope that the honey of Muses will make the medicine sweeter (I 945-947). At the same time, the poem On the Nature of the Sicilian Greek Empedocles (c. 450 BC), about which he speaks with admiration (I 729-733), could serve as a model for Lucretius. Some sections of the poem, including the gloomy ending, which goes back to the description of the Athenian epidemic of 429 BC. in Thucydides, can be definitely traced back to their Greek prototypes. On other occasions, references to recent inventions such as the watermill or the theater curtain suggest that Lucretius was drawing on his own experience here. About the most memorable places in the poem, for example, about the image of a "primitive man" in Book V, we can say that they bear the stamp of a genius. Separate ideas of Lucretius can be considered borrowings.

Lucretius' claim that he was a pioneer in the field of Latin versification (I 926-930) seems to be fully justified. From the epic poet Ennius (239-169 BC, cf. I 117-119) he borrows some archaic turns of speech and the traditional phraseology of heroic poetry. Lucretius partly owes his vocabulary and technique to the Phenomena of Arata (in the translation of Cicero), perhaps he also had other samples about which we know nothing. Some of Lucretius's most common terms, such as primordia rerum (original principle of things) instead of Epicurus's "atoms" or sensiferi motus (providing a sense of movement), never entered common use. Ancient commentators recognized the influence of Lucretius on Virgil, however, the hexameter scheme adopted by Virgil excluded many of the verse patterns typical of Lucretius, and later poets of antiquity, although they expressed admiration for Lucretius, as Ovid did (43 BC - 17 AD) and Statius (c. 45-96 AD), Virgil was consistently chosen as the model. Some of the metrical and phonetic effects of Lucretius, such as the line horrida contremuere sub altis aetheris oris (III 835), with their sophisticated alliteration and the exact correspondence of metrical and ordinary stress, anticipate medieval phenomena in poetry. This similarity, however, is connected with the revival in later poetry of the folk tendency, for a time stifled by the classical tradition. There could be no conscious imitation here, since in the Middle Ages Lucretius not only did not enjoy influence, but was simply unknown.

Christian authors, such as Lactantius (d. c. 325), used the attacks of Lucretius in the fight against pagan superstitions. However, the positive teaching of Epicurus seemed to every mind formed by orthodox theology not only blasphemous, but incomprehensible in its perversity. Lucretius as a poet was rediscovered by the Renaissance (the first printed edition of his poem came out c. 1473), when he found many admirers and imitators. But the reputation of the thinker began to assert itself behind Lucretius only from the middle of the 17th century, when Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) began a serious study of Epicurean philosophy, and the works of Galileo, Bacon and Descartes prepared the mind of people for a new way of perceiving "nature".

Meanwhile, the poem On Nature continued to be read and loved; without any doubt, it influenced Goethe and Voltaire, its influence is evident in all modern European literature (perhaps, especially in English - from E. Spencer to A. E. Housman). However, most readers who admired Lucretius as a poet did not regard his physics as childish and senseless and vehemently rejected his religious and moral teachings, and not at all out of hypocrisy. Even G.J. Munro, in the preface to his edition of the poem (1864), recognizing that “for Lucretius the truth of his philosophy was at the forefront”, nevertheless notes: “For us, however, the truth or falsity of his system means extremely little, it interests us only insofar as it turns out ... only a tool for expressing the beauties of his language and the elegance of poetic ideas. Only at the dawn of the 20th century it became possible to consider the poetry, science and philosophy of Lucretius as a whole. In 1900, W.G. Malloch translated into English extracts from Lucretius (Lucretius on life and death). In 1918, in G. Woods's book On the Nature of Things, an attempt was made to show that the teachings of Lucretius are fully consistent with the latest data of science. Despite the individualism undoubtedly inherent in Epicurean ethics, Lucretius was welcomed even by orthodox Marxists.

Materials of the encyclopedia "The world around us" are used.

Lucretius, Titus Lucretius Carus (Titus Lucretius Carus) (c. 95-55 BC) - Roman poet, materialist philosopher. A representative of the atomistic tradition, a follower of Epicurus. The author of the didactic poem "On the Nature of Things" (De rerum natura), consisting of six books. The first contains the cosmological views of Lucretius, their main provisions: “Nothing is created from nothing by divine will” (I, 151), there is nothing in the world except atomic bodies and emptiness. The second book outlines the atomistic theory, the doctrine of the spontaneous deviation of the atom (clinamen), the concept of the plurality of worlds, refuted the ideas of providence and the participation of the gods in the creation of the universe. The third book is devoted to criticism of ideas about the immortality of the soul and the transmigration of souls; it provides evidence of the mortality of the soul, speaks of the insignificance of the fear of death. The fourth book outlines the theory of knowledge associated with the doctrine of atomic images (simulacra) as the basis of sensory perception. The fifth book begins with the glorification of Epicurus and contains the antiteleological concept of the development of nature and human society: "need" underlies the development of human culture, and in this Lucretius is close to Democritus. The sixth book is devoted to explaining the causes of natural phenomena that cause superstitious fears; the majestic image of nature is overshadowed here by a description of phenomena hostile to man - the book ends with a description of the plague in Athens, tragically shading the optimism of the entire poem as a whole.

Inspired by the enlightening pathos of the philosophy of Epicurus, which had the goal of freeing people from superstition, fear of the gods and death, Lucretius glorified Epicurus as a benefactor hero, as a god and as a savior who showed people the path to happiness. Lucretius considered it his duty to continue his work, to discover "deeply hidden things" (I, 145) and show that the world is not controlled by the gods, but develops in a natural way. Moreover, if for Epicurus physics is secondary in relation to eudemonistic ethics, then for Lucretius physics has an independent value. He inspiredly painted pictures of the endless developing cosmos. In this, as well as in the poetic form of exposition of philosophical ideas, his kinship with the early Greek natural philosophers: he combined "the bitter wormwood of philosophy with the honey of poetic form" (On the nature of things, vol. 2. Articles, comments. M.–L., with 189), which was alien to classical Epicureanism, but characteristic, for example, of Empedocles (of whom he wrote with deep respect). The teaching of Lucretius about the gods as the finest atomic images that exist in inter-world spaces and do not interfere either in the affairs of the world or in the lives of people is associated with Epicurean epistemology and ethics. The gods are an ethical and aesthetic ideal for the Epicurean. Lucretius reinterpreted the concept of piety, depriving him of the connection with traditional religion and seeing pious behavior in "contemplation with complete peace of mind" (V, 1203). The soul is material, therefore it dies along with the body, death for it is only deliverance from suffering; overcoming the fear of death is a condition for earthly happiness.

The ideas of Lucretius had a significant impact on the development of materialistic philosophical teachings of the Renaissance and Modern times.

M.M. Shakhnovich

New Philosophical Encyclopedia. In four volumes. / Institute of Philosophy RAS. Scientific ed. advice: V.S. Stepin, A.A. Huseynov, G.Yu. Semigin. M., Thought, 2010, vol. II, E - M, p. 458.

Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 99-55 BC) - an ancient Roman philosopher, became famous for his philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", written in Latin. Nothing is known about his life. The work "On the Nature of Things" is in content a complete encyclopedia of Epicureanism. Moreover, it offers the most complete picture of all ancient atomism. The artistic form of presentation provides additional argumentation for all the philosophical provisions of Lucretius. The philosopher proceeds from the fact that a person needs a philosophy that would provide the basis for a peaceful existence. The task is to resist the enemies of human happiness - the fear of death, the fear of retribution after death and the fear of the gods, their interference in human life.

These fears can be resisted if a person knows his true position in the world, his true nature, and this requires knowledge, philosophy. You can get rid of fears if a person knows how the world around him and the person himself works. But the knowledge of nature is not an end in itself, it is important, Lucretius believes, in order to achieve a serene existence. The completion of the study of nature should be ethics - the science of happiness.

In the poem of Lucretius, the most developed part is, after all, the doctrine of nature. Lucretius proceeds from the fact that nothing can arise from nothing and nothing turns into nothing. Things are only decomposed into their constituent elements. In the world there are only bodies and space. Bodies characterize their properties, which cannot be separated from bodies. Bodies are either complex or simple. Simple bodies are particles of matter that cannot be further decomposed. Lucretius does not allow infinite divisibility of particles. Although Lucretius expounded the atomistic concept, he did not use the word "atom", but replaced it with various other names: "calves", "seeds", etc.

Atoms, as the first principles of things, are invisible, impenetrable, have density and heaviness, differ in shape and size, location and quantity (in compounds). They do not have properties and qualities that are inherent only in bodies. The properties of bodies depend on the shape of the atoms, their number and arrangement. Atoms have different shapes. In accordance with the teachings of Epicurus, Lucretius distinguished three types of motion of atoms: 1) motion in a straight line due to gravity; 2) spontaneous deviation; 3) movement from a push Spontaneous deviation of atoms Lucretius explained the emergence of the worlds, which occurs, according to Lucretius, without any intervention of the gods. “Not for us,” he wrote, by no means was this nature of things created by divine will [Lucretius. On the nature of things. V, 198-199].

In nature, according to Lucretius, an endless change occurs, the constant formation and death of the worlds. The universe is infinite, just like space is infinite. Lucretius believed that life arose by spontaneous generation from the "originals". Organisms in the past arose in a certain order, namely: plants, animals, people. Lucretius denied the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, affirmed the inseparable connection between body and soul, spirit. He also opposed the fear of death, believing that death is deliverance from suffering, and the fear of death arises as a result of people's ignorance of the laws of nature. In the doctrine of knowledge, Lucretius proceeds from the fact that sensory perception gives them objective knowledge of reality. He understands sensations as images that emanate from objects.

Lucretius, like Epicurus, considered not only acceptable, but also necessary, a plurality of explanations for natural phenomena. For every phenomenon, a wide variety of explanations are possible, and each explanation will be quite acceptable. Lucretius, following Epicurus, repeats an example in support of this position. It can be considered true that every day a new sun arises, and that the old luminary appears in the sky. It is equally true that the Moon is spherical and shines with light reflected from the Sun, and that the Moon shines with its own light. Although Lucretius believes in the knowability of the world, he believes that in the current state of science it is impossible to give a definite answer. In the matter of understanding society, he sought to explain everything in a natural way. Primitive people lived in a semi-wild state and only the development of material culture leads to the emergence of society. Like Epicurus, he believed that society is the product of the mutual agreement of people.

The ethical views of Lucretius are reduced to the Epicurean principles of a happy life, in which happiness is achieved by knowledge. However, Lucretius brings something new to the ethical concept. If for Epicurus life consisted of an imperceptible existence, then Lucretius in his life, on the contrary, is engaged in active social activity. Although theoretically he appreciates the chambers as the goal of a happy person, he opposes everything in society, which leads to a violation of social order. So, he very sharply condemned the manifestations of moral decay in noble Roman society.

Blinnikov L.V. Brief dictionary of philosophical personalities. M., 2002.

Read further:

Philosophers, lovers of wisdom (biographical index).

M.F. Pakhomkin. Philosophy. Tasks, exercises, tests, creative tasks: educational and practical guide / M.F. Pakhomkin. - Khabarovsk: Khabar Publishing House. state tech. university 2005.

A.A. Tesla. Philosophy: guidelines / A.A. Tesla. - Khabarovsk: Publishing House of the Far East State University of Transportation, 2009. - 31 p.

Compositions:

De rerum natura, Oxf., 1947;

In Russian lane - On the nature of things, vol. 1, M. - L., 1946;

De rerum natura libri sex, editions: K. Müller. Z., 1975;

M. F. Smith (Loeb Classical Library). L.–Cambr., 1975;

J. Martin (Bibliotheca Teubneriana). Lpz., 1963;

in Russian transl.: On the nature of things, ed. and translation by F.A. Petrovsky, vol. 1. M.–L., 1945.

Literature:

Holland L.A. Lucretius and the Transpadanes. Princeton, 1979;

Schmidt J. Lukrez und die Stoiker. Quellenuntersuchungen zu De rerum natura. Marburg/Lahn. 1975;

Nichols Jr., J.H. Epicurean Political Philosophy. The De rerum natura of Lucretius. Ithaca, 1976;

Roberts L. A Concordance of Lucretius. N. Y.–L., 1977;

Bollack M. La raison de Lucrece. P., 1978;

Clay D. Lucretius and Epicurus. Ithaca, 1983.

On the nature of things, entry. Art. f. A. Petrovsky, M., 1958.

Lucretius. On the Nature of Things, vols. 1–2. M. - L., 1947

Titus Lucretius Kar. About the nature of things. M., 1983

Lucretius K. T., On the nature of things, vol. 2, M.-L., 1947 (articles and comments to that);

Losev A.F., Lucretius, in the book: Antique Literature, M., 1963;

Gogdon C. A., A bibliography of Lucretius, L., 1962;

Sallmann K. G., Die Natur bei Lukrez, Koln, 1962;

Boyance P. Lucrèce et l "épicurisme. P., 1963;

Boyance P., Lucrece. Sa vie, son oeuvre, avec un expose desa philosophie, P., 1964.

Introduction

The relevance of this work is due to the fact that the role of science has increased significantly in modern society. Science is a product of the development of the thought of ancient philosophers. In the 30s. BC. Rome is becoming a new scientific center with its own interests and its own spiritual climate, focused on practicality and effectiveness. The heyday of the great Hellenistic science ended.

The decline of traditional religious ideas, traditional morality, the growth of disappointment were the result of a change in lifestyle, exacerbation of internal and external contradictions. The search for new ideals went hand in hand with the introduction of Greek political and philosophical teachings into Rome. Rome did not have its own philosophical schools, but the Hellenistic, Greek teachings were adapted in one way or another, processed in accordance with the values ​​of Roman culture.

In ancient Rome, there were many talented natural philosophers who made a certain contribution to the progress of natural science. But still, much less new ideas were put forward during this period than in the history of ancient Greece. This period is associated with the names of Titus Lucretius Cara (I century BC), the author of the famous poem “On the Nature of Things”, Claudius Ptolemy (approx. 90-168 AD), author of the work “Mathematical System”

The purpose of the work: to study the ancient Roman period of ancient natural philosophy.

Titus Lucretius Kar

Titus Lucretius Car - an ancient Roman philosopher, became famous for his philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", written in Latin.

The work "On the Nature of Things" is in content a complete encyclopedia of Epicureanism. Moreover, it offers the most complete picture of all ancient atomism. The artistic form of presentation provides additional argumentation for all the philosophical provisions of Lucretius. The philosopher proceeds from the fact that a person needs a philosophy that would provide the basis for a peaceful existence. The task is to resist the enemies of human happiness - the fear of death, the fear of afterlife retribution and the fear of the gods, their interference in human life. These fears can be resisted if a person knows his true position in the world, his true nature, and this requires knowledge, philosophy. You can get rid of fears if a person knows how the world around him and the person himself works. But the knowledge of nature is not an end in itself, it is important, Lucretius believes, in order to achieve a serene existence. The completion of the study of nature should be ethics - the science of happiness. In the poem of Lucretius, the most developed part is still the doctrine of nature. Lucretius proceeds from the fact that nothing can arise from nothing and nothing turns into nothing. Things are only decomposed into their constituent elements. In the world there are only bodies and space. Bodies characterize their properties, which cannot be separated from bodies. Bodies are either complex or simple. Simple bodies are particles of matter that cannot be further decomposed. Lucretius does not allow infinite divisibility of particles. Although Lucretius expounded the atomistic concept, he did not use the word “atom”, but replaced it with various other names: “calves”, “seeds”, etc. Atoms, as the first principles of things, are invisible, impenetrable, have density and heaviness, differ in shape and size, location and quantity (in compounds). They do not have properties and qualities that are inherent only in bodies. The properties of bodies depend on the shape of the atoms, their number and arrangement. Atoms have different shapes. In accordance with the teachings of Epicurus, Lucretius distinguished three types of motion of atoms: 1) motion in a straight line due to gravity; 2) spontaneous deviation; 3) movement from a push. Spontaneous deflection of atoms Lucretius explained the emergence of the worlds, which occurs, according to Lucretius, without any intervention of the gods. “Not for us,” he wrote, “this nature of things was by no means created by the divine will.” In nature, according to Lucretius, there is an endless change, constant formation and death of the worlds. The universe is infinite, just as space is infinite. Lucretius believed that life arose by spontaneous generation from the "originals". Organisms in the past arose in a certain order, namely: plants, animals, people. Lucretius denied the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, affirmed the inseparable connection between body and soul, spirit. He did not recognize the fear of death, believing that death is deliverance from suffering, and the fear of death arises as a result of people's ignorance of the laws of nature. In the doctrine of knowledge, Lucretius proceeds from the fact that sensory perception gives us objective knowledge of reality. He understands sensations as images that emanate from objects. Lucretius, like Epicurus, considered not only acceptable, but also necessary, the multiplicity of explanations of natural phenomena. For every phenomenon, a wide variety of explanations are possible, and each explanation will be quite acceptable. Lucretius, following Epicurus, repeats an example in support of this position. It can be considered true that every day a new Sun arises, and that the former luminary appears in the sky. It is equally true that the Moon is spherical and shines with the light reflected from the Sun, and that the Moon shines with its own light. Although Lucretius believes in the knowability of the world, he believes that, given the current state of science, this cannot be stated with certainty. In the matter of understanding society, he sought to explain everything by natural causes.

(r. c. 99–95 - d. 55 BC), - OE. poet and materialist philosopher. Biographical almost no information about L. has been preserved (the reports of Jerome and Donat date back to the 4th century AD and are not very reliable). In all likelihood, L. received a philosophy. education in the Neapolitan Epicurean school, which flourished at that time in Italy, which was then headed by Philodemus. The philosophy has been preserved. L.'s poem, not published during his lifetime and, apparently, not completed by him. It was edited and published by Cicero (probably not Marcus Thulius Cicero, but his brother Quintus). Later it was entitled "On the nature of things" ("De rerum natura"). This name fully expresses its content. This Op. L. is the only fully preserved materialistic monument. thoughts of antiquity; it systematically and reasonably outlines antich. materialism and its highest achievement, the atomistic one, is especially complete. the teachings of Epicurus, the physics of whom, according to Marx's characterization, L. comprehended one "of all the ancients" (see K. Marx and F. Engels, Iz early proizv., 1956, p. 41). L. developed the materialist from the point of view of nature. The starting point for L. was DOS. the position of other Greek. materialism: "Nothing is created from nothing according to the divine will" ("On the Nature of Things", I, 150; Russian translation, M., 1958). L. showed that things are based on some smallest material principles, to-rye "... we call matter And for things, generic bodies usually, and also We call them the seeds of things and consider them to be primordial bodies, because they serve as the beginning of everything" (ibid., I, 58-61). Following Democritus and Epicurus, L. considered these eternal, indivisible (L. never used the Greek term “atom” anywhere in the poem), unchanging “bodies”, “seeds”, absolutely dense, impenetrable, moving in the void. The existence of bodies and emptiness, according to L., is mutually conditioned (see ibid., I, 443–44). The source of movement of bodies, according to L., is the weight of the "originals", their "heaviness" (see ibid., I, pp. 360–62), the speed of movement due to "gravity" in the empty space of all "originals" would be the same, they would "fall" in parallel, without colliding, if they did not possess some special property of deviation inherent in each beginning individually (see ibid., II, 217-224). Adjoining the doctrine of "deviation" to Epicurus, L. believed that due to the "deviation" of the body, by chance, "destroying the laws of rock", they collide and connect with each other, forming the whole variety of things and phenomena in nature (see ibid., II, 253-54). The idea of ​​"deviation" interests L. especially as a basis for explaining the free will of man, his insubordination to "rock" (see. ibid., II, 254-56). This doctrine is directed not only against the so-called. "through causality" of Democritus, but also against Rome. a religion that connects human actions with the doctrine of deities. fate and the predestination of the fate of each person, because during the Leo (1st century BC), in an era of turbulent social change, these problems came to the fore. In contrast to the idea of ​​the Romans about time as existing in itself, L. believed that there is no time "outside the movement of bodies and rest" (ibid., I, 463). Kosmogonich. and cosmological. L.'s views are basically systematic. exposition of the teachings of Democritus - Epicurus about the infinity of the Universe, infinite diversity, constant change, the emergence and death of worlds similar and unlike ours. At the same time, L. peculiarly explained the emergence of life, believing that the living arose as a result of a random spontaneous combination of certain bodies, "seeds"; in the future, the most “adapted” organisms survived, “this fitness” is, according to L., the result of the fact that only successful combinations of bodies that correspond to environmental conditions could be preserved (see ibid., III, 784–85). L. completely rejected the doctrine of the idealists about the ultimate goal, understanding expediency only as an accidental result of the combination of the original principles (see ibid., IV, 822-57). In the doctrine of knowledge L. also continued the line of philosophy. materialism, considering the world to be knowable. The only reliable source of knowledge are, according to L., feelings, errors occur where conclusions are not based on feelings. data, or with an incorrect generalization by the mind of these data (see ibid., IV, 508-09). The basis of the mechanism of feelings. perception L. puts the theory of "images" ("eidola") of Democritus. Thus, L. used all the main. the provisions of the Epicurean school, introduced by it into the atomistic. the doctrine of Democritus ("deviation", the recognition of hypotheses to explain the causes of certain phenomena, etc.). At the same time, L. in his justification of atomistics differed from Epicurus, who limited himself to preim. logical argumentation; L. made complex philosophy more accessible. ideas of Epicurus, he widely used comparisons, analogies between various processes of animate and inanimate nature, metaphors, etc. This feature of the presentation of atomistics in L. is connected, apparently, with his desire to widely popularize the atomistic. theory, its theoretical-cognitive. concept and great confidence in the data of the senses and daily practice. Socio-historical. views L. despite their idealistic. character, were progressive for his time. Following Democritus L. viewed the development of society as an act. a process based on "need" (especially the need for housing, fire and clothing) and "an inquisitive mind" (see ibid., V, 1448–53). In the course of this process, language, state-in (the origin of which L. explained by the contract of people), law arise. As an ideologue of the slave owner. democracy, L. condemned the immorality of Rome. slave owners, opposed exterminate. wars that separate civilians from work that is useful to society. V. Timoshenko. Moscow. Consistent the conclusion from L.'s materialism was his atheism. L. considered untenable religions. ideas about providence, miracles, etc. According to L., religion is superstition and prejudice, a product of ignorance and fear (see ibid., I, 151–58), supporting which it has become the source of many evils and disasters, injustice and crimes. L. saw the means of getting rid of religion in explaining the true causes of natural phenomena, in exposing the lies spread by the priests about the immortality of the soul and the afterlife. The soul, according to L., is corporal; it consists of the same atoms as the body, but thinner. The soul is inextricably linked with the body. With the death of the body, the soul also dies. Death means the end of suffering. There is nothing in common between life and death. In death, it is not destruction that frightens, but the inevitability of the afterlife retribution, which is only superstition. According to L., the gods, although they exist somewhere in the inter-world spaces, have nothing to do with the world and people's lives. L.'s recognition of the existence of the gods is explained not by his concessions to religion, but by the naive theory of knowledge of Democritus and Epicurus shared by him, according to which the source of ideas, including ideas about the gods, are the subtlest images coming from things and objects of the outside world: because the gods themselves exist. L. strongly defended the possibility of atheistic. ethics. Therefore, he allowed free will in man, which he connected with the idea of ​​Epicurus about the deviation of the movement of atoms from a vertical line. F. Cassidy. Moscow. Philosophical influence. works L. on the subsequent development of philosophy and natural science is extremely large. More on Rome. The soil under this influence was the engineer and theorist of architecture Vitruvius (1st century BC), whose treatise "Ten Books on Architecture" (Russian; translated, 1936), containing references to L., was widely known in cf. century, and then precisely with their mater. ideas influenced Italian. Renaissance architect L. B. Alberti; in the 17th–19th centuries - on many architectural theorists, and in Russia to the architect V. Bazhenov, who in 1790–97 published a treatise by Vitruvius (“On Architecture”, books 1–10). Galileo, Newton, Lomonosov, and other luminaries of modern science often referred to L. Materialists of the 17th and 18th centuries. perceived atomistic. ideas of antiquity arr. from a poem by L. Gassendi was an outstanding propagandist of L.'s ideas. The influence of L.'s atheism was enormous. The essentially atheistic poem of L. gave birth among the ministers of the church to many "Anti-Lucretius" (for example, M. Polignac, Against Lucretius. Nine books about God and nature, Russian translation, vol. 1-2 , 1803), who sought to criticize, slander and distort the militant materialist of antiquity. Among some modern bourgeois researchers of the heritage of L. appeared a diametrically opposite "new" interpretation of his worldview (see, for example, G. Hadzsits, Lucretius and his influence, 1935), according to which L. allegedly was a forerunner of a higher religion, a forerunner of Christianity and rejected only Rome . tongue religion. An example of another modern "discovery" is an attempt to turn L. into a physical. modern idealist. persuasion, allegedly seeing in his atomistic. only convenient "working hypotheses" (G. E. Mueller, What Plato thinks, 1937). Op.: On the nature of things (De rerum natura). Lat. the text of the manuscript of L.'s poem has come down to us in many ways. lists, the earliest of them belong to the 9th c. and are stored in the Leiden University Library. First commented ed. L.'s poem was carried out by the French. philologist Lambin (1563), it has not lost its significance to this day. Later comparative-critical. the manuscripts were analyzed by Lachman, Menro, Diels, Ernu, and others. The latest editions in lang. original: De rerum natura. Libri 6, ed. with introduction and commentary by W. E. Leonard and S. B. Smith, Madison, 1942; On the nature of the universe, transl. and with an introduction. by R. Latham, Harmondsworth, 1958; De rerum nature. Libri 6, 4 rec. J. Martin, Lpz., 1959; in Russian per. - On the nature of things, trans. from lat. A. Klevanova, M., 1876; On the nature of things, trans. from lat. I. Rachinsky, M., 1904; 2nd ed., M., 1913, 3rd ed., foreword by V. Vandek and V. Timosko, M., 1933; On the nature of things, trans. and com. F. A. Petrovsky. Intro. Art. V. F. Asmus, Moscow–Leningrad, 1936; About the nature of things. Ed. lat. text and trans. F. A. Petrovsky, vol. 1–2, M.–L., 1946–47 (in the 2nd volume of the article on L.: Vavilov, Svetlov, Tolstoy, Borovsky, Mashkin, etc.); On the nature of things, trans. from lat., entry. Art. and com. F. A. Petrovsky. Moscow, 1958. ?ber die Natur der Dinge, hrsg. von G. Klaus, ?bers, von H. Diels, B., 1957; De la nature. Texte ?tabli et traduit par A. Ermont, 2 ?d., P., 1959. Lit.: Marx K. and Engels F., From early works, M., 1956 (see Name index); Markovnikov V., The idea of ​​cultural and historical. development in the poem L., "Scientific word", 1903, No 10, p. 97–122; Vandek V., Tit L. Kar and his philosophy of militant atheism, M.–L., 1931; Vavilov S. I., Fizika L., Vestn. AN SSSR, 1946, No 2, p. 43–56; Svetlov V.I., Worldview L., M., 1952 (author's abstract of diss.); Vavilov S.I., Sobr. soch., vol. 3, M., 1956, p. 646–63; Kublanov M. M., Atheistic. views of L., in the book: Yearbook of the Museum of the History of Religion and Atheism, [vol. ] 3, M.–L., 1959, p. 377–98; Makovelsky A. O., On the question of atheism L., ibid.; Motus A. A., L. Kar - the great educator of antiquity (social and political views of L. Kara), Uch. app. Leningrad. state ped. in-ta, v. 188, Historical and Philological. faculty. Historical science, 1959, p. 365–95; Abinovich V. I., Vitruvius and L., "Problems of Philosophy", 1963, No 3; Masson J., Lucretius, epicurean and poet, v. 1–2, L., 1906–1909; Alfieri, V. E., Lucrezio and Firenze, 1929; Regenbogen O., Lukrez, seine Gestalt in seinen Gedichten, Lpz., 1932; Mewaldt J., Der Kampf des Dichters L. gegen die Religion, W., 1935; Moritz M., Medizinisches bei Seneca und L., Dösseldorf, 1935 (Diss.); The stoic and epicurean philosophers. Ed. and with an introduction by W. I. Cates, N. Y., 1940; Rozelaar M., Lukrez. Versuch einer Deutung, Amst.–P., 1941, (Diss.); ?raglia A., Sulla formazione spirituale di Lucrezio, Roma, 1948; Riposati B., Il poema di L., Mil., 1958; Ballack J., L. und Empedokles, "Neue Rundschau", 1959, Jg 70, H. 4. V. Timoshenko. Moscow.

Titus Lucretius Car and his poem "On the Nature of Things"

A contemporary of Cicero, Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC), a man of a noble family, decided to present in the form of a poem the dry, non-poetic philosophy of Epicurus, in a language that was still little adapted to the expression of abstract concepts. The task was very difficult. But the more ungrateful the poem, for the processing of which Lucretius used his talent, the more surprising is the skill with which he, clearly expounding a system built on syllogisms, managed to satisfy the requirements of poetry, equally interested in abstract thinking and fantasy. The purpose of the poem “On the Nature of Things” (De natura rerum) is to, through familiarizing people with the teachings of Epicurus, free them from religious traditions and prejudices, relieve them of the fear of death and posthumous retribution, destroy any religious superstition, and explain the true origin of the present structure of the universe. , the essence of nature, and thereby elevate people to noble, courageous feelings and to personal freedom. Titus Lucretius Car performs this task with enthusiasm, with fiery eloquence, enlivens abstract thoughts with picture descriptions.

So, in the exposition of the abstract doctrine of nature, he introduces a moral tendency. Lucretius explains the origin and future destruction of the present order of the universe by the action of mechanical forces, as taught by Epicurus. Titus Lucretius Car says that the structure of the universe is produced by a random combination of atoms of eternal matter, that the gods do not care about nature and people.

The gods, by their nature, should enjoy immortal life in blissful tranquility, far from our affairs and concerns; self-sufficient, they do not need us; our merits and our desires do not affect them.” (Lucretius Kar "On the nature of things", song Y).

Lucretius Carus thought about this, as well as about many other things, like another Roman poet, Ennius, who said: “Of course, there are celestial gods; but I think they don't care about people's fate."

According to Lucretius, the soul, like the body, again disintegrates after death into the elements of which it was composed.

“The soul is a part of a person, it occupies a certain place in the body, like the eye or ears or other sense organs; and just as a hand, an eye or a nose, separated from the body, cannot feel, cannot continue to exist, and soon disappear, decaying, so the soul cannot exist separately from the body of the person with which it is connected. (Lucretius Carus "On the Nature of Things", Ode III). lucretius philosophy universe religious

In the poem "On the Nature of Things" Lucretius Car sharply refutes the teachings of the Stoics about divine providence and the immortality of the soul; he wants to free a person from shy fear, to inspire him that he should rely only on himself, that willpower is the only source of peace of mind and happiness, that death, eternal rest from the worries of hope and fear, is better than life, that there is no suffering after death that a man suffers only while he is alive, while passions torment his heart; that a person should strive to balance his inclinations, that peace of mind is given only by firmness of will, nobility of feelings, that only a person is happy who knows how to neglect deceptive, imaginary blessings and exalt himself with his heart, us by the accidents of life. - The thoughts and language of Titus Lucretius Kara are energetic, the power of feeling often gives majesty to his presentation of thoughts, enlivened by beautiful descriptions and, where necessary, irony. Some of his descriptions show the power of creative imagination, such as the description of the plague in Athens by Thucydides, found in the sixth song of the poem "On the Nature of Things." But Lucretius has outdated expressions, a syllable, it is devoid of grace, the verse is devoid of harmony. The hexameter of the poem "On the Nature of Things" moves powerfully, but heavily.

Philosophy of Lucretius Cara

In the philosophy of Titus Lucretius Kara, a new step is being taken in the development of Epicureanism. We do not know the circumstances of the life of this philosopher-poet, but we can get an idea of ​​the time of the appearance of his poem from a letter from Cicero dated February 54 BC. e. It is possible that Lucretius was born in 95 and committed suicide at the age of 44, that is, in 51. There is reason to consider the dates of his life as 99-55. BC e. In any case, this is the first half of the 1st century. But where history is silent or sparingly spit out individual phrases about Lucretius, his poem “On the Nature of Things” speaks loudly. This is a real encyclopedia of epicureanism. The six books of this philosophical poem set out the foundations of Epicurus' physics in comparison with the teachings of the philosophers of the past (“On the Nature of Things”, Books I and II), the doctrine of the soul and its properties (Book III), the doctrine of the gods, the origin of knowledge and human physiology (book IV). An explanation of earthquakes and volcanic activity, a description of climatic phenomena, rivers and hot springs are replaced in the VI book. a description of diseases and a story about the horrors of the epidemic of 430 BC. e. in Athens. Anti-religious and ethical issues run like a red thread through the entire poem, the outputs to which contain almost all the scientific issues considered in the poem.

It would be in vain to try to present the rich content of the poem "On the Nature of Things" by Titus Lucretius Cara - it must be read as a philosophical treatise and as a most talented poetic work. Formally speaking, it expounds the teachings of Epicurus, and its philosophical significance from this point of view seems to be exhausted - although this is already quite a lot! - the reproduction of the argumentation that is characteristic of atomism, and sometimes known to us only from this source. In essence, the poem is much richer. The “mechanical” picture of the world of Democritus and Epicurus is replaced by Lucretius with an aesthetically rich, emotionally colored, artistic picture of wildlife - the “nature of things”. It was enough for Democritus and Epicurus to explain the nature of two factors - atoms with their inherent properties and the void in which they move. Lucretius is rather attracted by the living, giving birth, creative nature-fusis of the early Greek thinkers.

Hence the tendency of the philosophy of Lucretius Cara not to technomorphic "mechanical" analogies like the "sorting" of Anaxagoras and Democritus, but to biomorphic analogies - "birth" and "growth". Hence the terminology - Lucretius does not have a Latin term for the Greek concept of "atom" - "indivisible". (The Latin calque for the term “atom” is individuum. Cicero introduces it in his expositions of Epicureanism, and many Roman thinkers use it. But how far is this word in its modern, rooted meaning from the ancient “atom”!) Its “original principles” or “primary bodies”, Lucretius calls “seeds”, returning, terminologically, to Anaxagoras. Let us consider how the leading principle of atomism changes in connection with this. Lucretius formulates it this way: “No thing arises from nothing in some divine way” (Lucretius “On the Nature of Things”, I, 251). An analysis of the substantiation of this thesis allows us to conclude that it contains a rich and dissected teaching. First, the philosophy of Lucretius understands this principle as an expression of determinism: nothing comes into existence without a cause. Secondly, as an expression of substantialism: a thing can arise only from other things, ultimately from "primary bodies", atomic matter. Thirdly, as a reflection of the biomorphic process: the emergence of things is not a mechanical combination of particles, but a birth analogous to a biological phenomenon that bears the same name and is illustrated by examples of this kind. Finally, the principle ex nihilo nihil (“nothing comes from nothing”) is a radical denial of divine intervention in the affairs of nature.

Titus Lucretius Carus in his philosophy understands atoms differently from Democritus and Epicurus. Of course, for him this is the “limit of fragmentation” (redditia finis), but at the same time it is a very strong idealization. According to the thinker, an elementary particle of matter

Completely indivisible;

Being least by nature; and separately,

I could never be on my own, and never will be,

For another she is the only first share,

Following which others like her, in order,

Intertwined in a close formation, they form a bodily essence

(Lucretius "On the Nature of Things", I, 601-606).

This means that the atom is only an abstract limit of divisibility, some, in modern terms, an “ideal body”. The real body is always part of a larger whole, "the creative nature of things", even "generating matter" (genitalis... materies, "On the Nature of Things", I, 626-627).

Lucretius does not explain what properties of matter determine its productive capacity. In the place under consideration, he lists its properties such as various combinations, weight, movements, shocks, “from which things are created” (1.634). These are the properties of the Epicurean atoms, quite sufficient, according to the teacher, to explain the things that arise from atoms. The student, on the other hand, constantly emphasizes precisely the creative, productive nature of matter, speaks of that precisely defined material (certa materias) from which things are born. It can be said that, according to the philosophy of Lucretius, this material contains, as it contains the seed, the beginning and the principle of the formation of a thing, if you like, its “genetic code”. Naturally, it is impossible to express this idea in terms of classical atomism, and Lucretius Carus is constantly looking for ways to express it. Poetry comes to the rescue.

In the poem "On the Nature of Things" there are many places in which the creative nature seems to be personified in the mythological images of Venus, the Mother of the gods, the Great Matter; Titus Lucretius Carus depicts the marriage of Mother Earth and Father Ether, which gives rise to all living things, the loving embrace of Venus and Mars, etc. However, one cannot see the revival of mythology here. Firstly, only about 15% of the text of the poem contains references to mythological creatures, and in most cases in a clearly anti-religious context. Secondly, Lucretius emphasizes that he delights the reader of “Muses with charm” in order to make the “dark object” more intelligible, just as a doctor gives a bitter drink to a child, having previously smeared the edges of the vessel with honey (see: “On the nature of things ”, IV, 8-22). Finally, in the mythological images of the philosophy of Lucretius, their allegorical nature is clearly visible. The allegorical sound of the image of the Great Mother is obvious: people give this name to the Earth, seeing that it gives birth and grows fruits that people and animals eat (II, 590-600), her images are allegorical.

If anyone desires or the sea by Neptune,

Or bread to Ceres, or Bacchus prefers

It is in vain to apply the name to wine instead of the right word,

Then let us yield to him, and let the whole earthly circumference

The mother will be the gods for him, if only at the same time

He, in fact, does not stain the souls with the infamous religion

(Lucretius "On the Nature of Things" II, 655-659, 680).

The absolute predominance of allegorical interpretations of the gods of traditional mythology indicates that the philosophy of Lucretius continues the interpretation of religion common in Hellenistic science and art, and having mastered the poetic technique of the epic, as if from within reveals the failure of traditional mythology (such, in general, is the attitude of such a Hellenistic poet as Callimachus ). However, if in literature we often meet with an attempt to replace the old myth with a new, non-classical one, then Titus Lucretius Car creates not a new mythology, but natural philosophy, “physics” in the sense of the first philosophers. It is the natural-philosophical approach that prevails in Lucretius. If in the system of Epicurus, as far as we can judge, natural philosophical material occupies a clearly subordinate place, then in his Roman successor physics is independent and the interests of the philosopher are concentrated on building a rational picture of the world. Meaningful contemplation of the surrounding world - "open" things with their qualities and signs, and things "hidden", deduced by thought - leads the philosopher to enlightening positions; enlightenment means a complete restructuring of human consciousness and self-awareness. Superstition and fears generated by religion should be expelled from the soul by “nature itself by its appearance and internal structure” - the philosopher Lucretius repeats three times (“On the Nature of Things”, I, 148; II, 61; VI, 41).

Modifying the basic settings of "mechanical" atomism in accordance with its desire to comprehend nature in the spirit of a biomorphic understanding of matter, the philosophy of Lucretius traces the traditional atomistic problems from this point of view. We have already described his interpretation of the principle “nothing comes from nothing”. Titus Lucretius Car gives further detailed substantiation of the atomistic structure of matter. He develops a twofold kind of argument: first, he shows that things are composed of invisible particles - wind, water, smells, sounds, etc. testify that such bodies exist:

Drop by drop hammers, falling, a rock; curved

The plow's iron coulter is imperceptibly erased in the soil;

And the pavement of roads, paved with stones, we see

Erased by the noses of the crowd; and the right hands of the statues

Bronze near the gates of the city are gradually losing weight

From falling to them the people passing by

(Lucretius "On the Nature of Things", I, 313-318).

Then the indivisibility of the smallest particles is proved by logical argument from the contrary. So, he repeats the argument of Zeno of Elea: if bodies are divisible to infinity and there is no limit to division, then “how will you distinguish the smallest thing from the universe?” (I 619) - but the conclusion is not the indivisibility of "being" in general, but the existence of a divisibility limit.

In an Epicurean way, the philosophy of Lucretius proves the existence of emptiness, deriving it from the movement, the divisibility of complex bodies, and the different density of matter. He connects the movement of bodies with gravity and divides it into rectilinear movement and movement generated by collision. The spontaneous deviation of atoms is also recognized, which is also associated with the creative power of matter. At the same time, the philosophy of Lucretius develops a more consistent determinism, returning to Democritus, but on a different, again biomorphic basis, based on the idea that in nature “it is precisely assigned where to be and where to develop” (III, 787; V, 731). This formula does not imply, however, any extra-natural "reasonable" factor.

Lucretius returns to Democritus in the understanding of society. Quite similarly to Democritus' description of social development, he draws a picture of the progress of human society in the fifth book of the poem (V, 926 - 1457). But here, too, there is a change - if not in content, then in pathos. The fact that Lucretius lives in an era of socio-political crises that erupted one after another on the eve of the Roman Empire left its mark on the poem. Although there are practically no specific socio-political attitudes and reflections in it, the thinker reacts to these crises by revealing the inconsistency of social development. It is reflected in the fact that people pay for progress in production and culture with exhausting labor, social and property inequality, wars and the killing of their own kind, vices and crimes, superstitions and fear of the gods and death. Fear, ignorance and the religion generated by them turn out to be the main characteristics of human existence for him. The only hope here is in philosophy, in the teachings of Epicurus, which alone can get rid of all this.

Lucretius is a decidedly anti-religious philosopher. The subject of his condemnation, ridicule, destroying sarcasm, direct bullying is the existing religion and traditional mythology, the "vile religion" of the era. Its main vice is that religion, born out of ignorance and fear and claiming to be the guarantor of moral behavior, itself gives rise to impious and criminal deeds, such as sacrificing Iphigenia "to send down to the courts a happy exit to the sea" (I, 100). Myths are explained in the philosophy of Lucretius allegorically - or purely physically (for example, the myth of Phaeton ("On the Nature of Things", V, 396-410) expresses one of the moments of the rivalry of the natural elements, when fire wins), or social factors - for example, "Titius with us - this is the one who lies, struck by love; the birds are tormenting him - then anxiety gnaws painfully ”; Cerberus, furies and Tartarus are a reflection of earthly tortures and dungeons, which the criminal managed to escape on earth (see: "On the Nature of Things", III, 984-1023).

More difficult is the question of Lucretius' atheism. For the Romans and Greeks, atheism meant disbelief in the gods of popular religion, and even more so in the gods established by the state. From this point of view, Lucretius is undoubtedly an atheist. However, he is inclined, following Epicurus, to recognize the existence of extra-worldly gods, absolutely blissful and therefore absolutely inactive beings, whose nature

So thin and from feeling

Ours is so far away that it is hardly comprehensible by the mind

(Lucretius "On the Nature of Things", V, 148-149).

The gods of the philosophy of Lucretius are deprived of all the functions of gods as religious objects: they are not creators and organizers of the world; they do not exercise providence and providence; they are not propitiated by prayers and do not perceive gratitude, they cannot punish people for evil deeds or reward for virtue. Therefore, worship of the gods is vain and meaningless, traditional piety is meaningless:

No, piety is not that before everyone with a covered head

You go to the statues and fall down to all the altars...

But in contemplation of everything with complete peace of mind

(Lucretius "On the Nature of Things", V, 1198-1203).

Therefore, the gods of Lucretius are even more irrelevant to the world than the Epicurean ones, and we can justifiably speak of him as an atheist.

In ethics, Lucretius follows Epicurus. But the ethics of the Roman philosopher is more naturalistic and deterministic than the Epicurean doctrine of morality. Desire-pleasure - this is how the Latin voluptas can be translated - is a universal principle of determining the behavior of any living being, independent of its awareness by a person. Therefore, in moral terms, the man of the philosophy of Lucretius is a child of living and creative nature, the focus of her strengths and abilities. Since the human soul is mortal - Lucretius in his philosophy differs from the Greek atomists in that he divides the soul, in accordance with the Latin tradition, into "soul" (anima) and spirit, or mind (animus), - life is limited to the current earthly existence. But here, too, desires, which serve as the goal of life, are limited by reason: we see that little is enough for our bodily nature,

And therefore, since there is no treasure for our body

Not at all useful, as well as from idleness or from power,

(Lucretius "On the nature of things", II, 20).

Consequently, lust should not go beyond natural needs. Despite all this, the Epicureanism of Lucretius, like the ethical concept of Epicurus, was condemned by the official "morality" of religious teachings of various kinds.

Titus Lucretius Kar

Ancient Greek atomistic materialism - the most mature form of ancient materialism - was further developed in the teachings of the Roman philosopher Tita Lucretia Kara(about 99-55 BC). in ancient Rome in the 1st century BC. Lucretius, the spokesman for the ideology and interests of the democratic strata of the Roman slave owners, is the greatest materialist and atheist of ancient Rome. In the philosophical work set forth by him in poetic form - the poem "On the Nature of Things", Lucretius reproduced the content of the teachings of Epicurus and developed further some of his main provisions.

Lucretius saw the task of philosophy in understanding the nature of things and the nature of consciousness, that is, in giving a complete picture of the world. The world, according to Lucretius, consists of atoms and emptiness. Atoms are eternal, indestructible moving smallest particles of matter, which are the limit of the divisibility of things. Atoms are qualityless, they differ only in size, shape and gravity. All things of nature are the result of various combinations of atoms moving in the void.

The recognition of the existence of emptiness as an indispensable condition that makes possible the movement of atoms is, according to Lucretius, absolutely necessary. He pointed out that we must either reject the movement of atoms, or recognize the existence of emptiness - a necessary condition for their movement. The fact is that Lucretius, like all his predecessors, understood the movement of atoms only as a movement, as a change in their place. It follows from this that he knew the motion of matter only in one, its simplest form - the form of the mechanical movement of its particles. Taking atoms as the constituent, extremely tiny particles of all things, Lucretius considered them to be internally unchanged. Movement as self-movement of matter, as its continuous change, manifested in qualitatively diverse forms, was not known to the materialists of the ancient world, including Lucretius, and could not be known. Thus, the limited understanding of motion as a simple mechanical movement led the ancient atomists, in this case Lucretius, to the recognition of the need for emptiness. Without the presence of emptiness in nature, Lucretius taught, atoms could not move, regroup, form new things, since there would be only one dense matter everywhere. Therefore, in reality, Lucretius declared, every object contains a void. Even those objects, he said, which people consider absolutely solid, are porous, that is, they contain emptiness. By the presence of emptiness in objects, Lucretius also explained their property, such as permeability.

Emptiness, unlike atoms, has no gravity. Therefore, in nature, Lucretius pointed out, there are both objects of large volume and low weight, because they contain a lot of empty space, and objects of small volume, but heavy, because they contain many atoms, but little empty space.

The ancient materialists, including Lucretius, had not yet reached the understanding of matter as an objective reality. Lucretius called material everything that is bodily, consists of atoms and has the property of influencing everything directly surrounding and perceiving external influences. Based on this limited understanding of materiality, Lucretius considered, for example, the soul of a person to be material, and emptiness to be non-material, since, in his opinion, emptiness, although it exists objectively, does not have the properties of a body, does not affect atoms.

Lucretius reproduced the brilliant conjecture of Epicurus about the equal-velocity fall of atoms of different weights in the void. He rejected the view that heavier atoms move faster in empty space than lighter ones, and therefore fall on the lighter ones and produce the motions necessary for the formation of things. In fact, said Lucretius, the void, by virtue of its nature, does not resist moving atoms. Atoms of different weights, he pointed out, fall in a vacuum with the same speed, and the heavier ones cannot in any way stumble upon the light ones when they fall, change their motion and thus lead to the formation of things. In this regard, Lucretius developed the idea of ​​Epicurus that atoms spontaneously deviate from a straight line when they fall, which leads to the emergence of turbulence and the formation of things.

Matter, according to Lucretius, is atoms moving in the void. The difference of all things in the world depends on how the atoms are connected in them, what position they occupy and how they move. The qualities of natural objects are objective, they are the result of appropriate combinations, linkages of the atoms that form them. Atoms themselves, before they combine to form things, are devoid of such qualities as color, smell, taste, etc. Atoms are colorless, and therefore it is unacceptable, said Lucretius, to consider, for example, that black things arose from black atoms, and white things from white ones. But, believing that atoms are devoid of these qualities, Lucretius, like Epicurus, unlike Democritus, considered color, sound, etc. not subjective, but objective qualities, the qualities of the objects themselves and the processes of nature. Atoms, said Lucretius, have different forms, therefore, when combined with each other, they form qualitatively diverse things that have a certain color, taste, etc. What is warm or cold, hard or soft in the outside world, Lucretius said, must necessarily seem to us warm or cold, hard or soft. The recognition of the objectivity of such qualities as color, taste, smell, etc., is a serious achievement of the atomistic materialism of Epicurus and Lucretius.

In his poem "On the Nature of Things" Lucretius expressed a brilliant conjecture about the law of conservation of matter. The amount of matter, atoms, he wrote, is invariable, it always remains the same. Nothing can be separated from matter or added to it. Matter is eternal. All things in nature are compounds of atoms. Things are temporary, they arise and disappear, disintegrating into atoms, into their primary constituent particles. The eternity of matter, said Lucretius, lies in the fact that nothing can arise from nothing and cannot turn back into nothing.

Of great interest to the history of science is the teaching of Lucretius on space and time, which he characterized as objective forms of existence inextricably linked with things. Space, said Lucretius, is the place occupied by atoms and their compounds - things. Eternal, consisting of atoms and emptiness, the Universe is boundless. In no direction, wrote Lucretius, neither up nor down, neither to the right nor to the left, there are no boundaries of the universe, and therefore there is no middle point. Time, according to Lucretius, is not inherent in atoms, since they are unchanging, eternal, but it is inherent in things consisting of atoms, as well as natural phenomena. It is impossible to perceive time by the senses by itself, without connection with the movement or rest of things, because time does not exist by itself, but in things and processes of nature. Therefore, the question of time is, Lucretius argued, the question of the past or future of certain things and events.

Lucretius materialistically solved the question of human consciousness. Proving the materiality of the world, he considered spiritual processes, sensuality and consciousness to be material. The soul (sensuality) and reason (consciousness), according to the teachings of Lucretius, are just as material and consist of atoms, like other bodies. The difference, for example, between the soul and the body, Lucretius, like Epicurus, saw only in the fact that the soul, in his opinion, consists of smaller, mobile, round and smooth atoms compared to the atoms that make up ordinary bodies.

The soul and mind, said Lucretius, are corporeal in nature, because they perceive external influences and themselves act on the human body. Spirit (soul and mind) and body always exist in unity. A body without a spirit cannot feel; a spirit without a body cannot move. The spirit at the same time, together with our body, said Lucretius, is born, grows, grows old and dies. Proving that along with the death of the human body, his soul dies, dissipates into separate atoms and his soul, Lucretius criticized Plato's idealistic theory of immortality and the transmigration of souls. In his poem "On the Nature of Things" he wrote about this:

“... If the soul has an immortal nature

And settles in us, taking root in the body at birth,

Then why, then, do we not remember the past life,

We do not keep traces of past events?

For if the spirit could change so much ability,

That he completely lost his memory of everything that had passed,

This, I think, differs little from death.

And so we must make sure that the former souls

They folded it, and the one that now exists is now born.”

Thus, justifying the organic unity of the body and soul, Lucretius noted that the soul arises simultaneously with the birth of a person and perishes with his death.

Lucretius did not recognize the universal animation of matter. He believed that the soul (sensuality) is a property that is not inherent in all, but only in a certain way organized parts of matter.

With their monistic solution to the question of matter and consciousness, their unshakable recognition of the materiality of the world, the ancient atomists dealt serious blows to idealism. At the same time, it should be noted that their concrete solution to the problem of the relationship between matter and consciousness, material and spiritual, was limited and left a loophole for idealists. Considering the soul as material as the human body, the ancient atomists did not reach a correct understanding of the qualitative difference between consciousness and matter and their actual relationship as secondary and primary. This weak link in the teachings of the ancient materialists was seized upon by their opponents, the idealists, who so inflated the specifics of consciousness, its active, active side, that they began to portray consciousness as something original, primary in relation to matter.

In the poem "On the Nature of Things" Lucretius gave the most complete exposition of the foundations of the theory of knowledge of atomistic materialism. The purpose of knowledge, according to Lucretius, is to reveal the nature of things and deliver a person from the shackles of superstition, from religious ideas about the world. Lucretius cast aside all doubts about the possibility of knowing the world. Unshakably adhering to the point of view of the knowability of the world, he spoke out against skepticism and wrote that skeptics, denying always and in everything certainty, deprive themselves of the possibility of having any concept of knowledge or ignorance, of knowability or unknowability, of truth or error. Whoever declares, Lucretius said, that knowledge is unthinkable, also does not know whether it is possible to know that it is impossible to know anything, that is, the very statement of the skeptic about the unknowability of the world already contains its refutation. Based on the knowability of the world, Lucretius believed that knowledge is carried out through the senses and reason (consciousness).

Correctly asserting that the external world is the source of human knowledge, Lucretius, following Democritus and Epicurus, drew the following naive-materialistic picture of the process of cognition. In the air surrounding a person, the thinnest imprints, images that have separated from the surface of objects of the outside world, fly, retaining a resemblance to the corresponding objects. These images, acting on the senses, excite them and cause various sensations in the human soul: visual, sound, taste, olfactory and tactile. The cause of vision, for example, Lucretius said, is rooted in visual images separated from objects, which cause corresponding visual sensations in a person. The images of objects themselves, freely flying in the air, are extremely thin, light and fast, and therefore they are not visible to a person. A person sees through the penetration of these images into the senses. The lion, for example, said Lucretius, we see because his image flies into our eyes. It is quite obvious that this naive-materialistic theory of images of things as external causes that cause corresponding sensations in a person is the germ of the materialistic theory of reflection developed later.

Lucretius believed that the human senses give correct evidence about the existence and properties of things and processes in the external world. He consistently defended the doctrine of reliable sensory data as a source of knowledge, resolutely opposed any statements that express distrust of the testimony of the senses. The data of the sense organs, taught Lucretius, as a whole are always reliable. From them, we also have the concept of truth. There is nothing more reliable in the world than feelings, he said. If the readings of the sense organs were unreliable, then all the conclusions of our reason would become necessarily false, and this would make it impossible both for the adaptation of man to the environment and for the very existence of people.

Lucretius noted that the true nature of things is known by man on the basis of the testimony of the senses, processed through the activity of reason (thinking). For example, with the help of the organ of vision - the eye, a person sees things - compounds of atoms, but does not see the atoms themselves, knowledge of which is acquired through thinking. Comprehending sensory data, we come to establish the true nature of the observed phenomena. These true conclusions of ours are possible only because they are based on reliable indications of the senses.

In dealing with issues of morality and religion, Lucretius was also a follower of Epicurus. At the heart of his ethics is the position that the happiness of a person consists in a moderate lifestyle and in peace of mind.

Lucretius was the most prominent atheist of ancient Rome. In his poem "On the Nature of Things" he gave a versatile critique of religion. Lucretius considered religion to be the product of people's ignorance, the result of people's ignorance of the laws of nature and their fear of the elements. Not realizing that nature is eternal, he said, people began to attribute its occurrence to supernatural forces, gods invented by them. Not knowing the material essence of the soul, people began to consider it immortal, and at the same time they began to fear eternal torment after death. Unable to explain the natural origin of natural phenomena, such as the change of seasons, etc., ignorant people began to assert that everything in nature is done by the will of the gods. Lucretius passionately debunked such claims and wrote that they brought humanity nothing but tears and suffering:

“O wretched human race! Such phenomena

Could he ascribe to the gods and assign them merciless wrath!

How many groans to him, how many ulcers this caused us,

How many tears have brought both our children and grandchildren!

Lucretius was unshakably convinced that nature is eternal and develops according to its own natural laws, that the gods are invented by people and are the product of their elemental creativity.

Lucretius' critique of religion also suffered from significant shortcomings. Not knowing the social roots of religion, seeing the reasons for its emergence and existence only in the minds of people, Lucretius, like all materialists before Marx, considered the only way to get rid of religious superstitions was to reveal the secrets of nature, to spread knowledge about the essence of things.

The materialistic philosophy of Lucretius is the most complete exposition of ancient atomistic materialism. His poem "On the Nature of Things" completed the development of the materialism of the ancient world.