Countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America: problems of modernization. Presentation for a lesson on history (Grade 11) on the topic: Ways of development of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin America

DEVELOPMENT WAYS IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	DEVELOPMENT WAYS IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
Rubric (thematic category)	Politics

At the time of their transformation into colonies and semi-colonies of industrial powers, most of the peoples of the countries of Asia and Africa lived under the conditions of a feudal or tribal system. The results of their conquest by industrial countries were extremely ambiguous.

Especially destructive was colonialism, which used the methods of the pre-capitalist era in the exploitation of the colonies. Οʜᴎ included the robbery of colonies, the export of gold, silver, cultural monuments to the mother countries, the creation of a slave trade system, from which the population of Equatorial Africa in the 16th-19th centuries especially suffered.

Reasons for the rise of anti-colonial movements. Metropolises of the late XIX - early XX centuries, interested in expanding foreign markets, using the resources of the colonies, incl. and cheap labor, tried to create a system of orderly management of their possessions. The colonial administration, as a rule, tried to rely on the support of the local nobility (this was especially characteristic of Great Britain in India), while maintaining its power and privileges. Only the possibility of inciting feudal strife and pursuing an independent foreign and military policy was limited. The destruction of the traditional way of life was not the goal of the colonialists (for example, in India, the British left the caste system intact), nevertheless, the way of life of the peoples of the colonial countries underwent changes.

a system of communal farming and subsistence farming, i.e. extremely conservative, inert ways that have not changed for centuries, incompatible with any development. The released cheap labor force was used in the newly created industries that served the economy of the metropolises. This, in turn, expanded the scope of commodity-money relations and accelerated the disintegration of traditional ways.

The policy of the industrial states had the same influence on the countries dependent on them, which became the object of trade and economic expansion. So, back in the 19th century, China, having suffered a defeat in the war with Great Britain, was forced to agree to open the five largest ports for free trade, to accept the obligation to establish low customs duties (no more than 5%) on British goods. In open ports, the British received the right to create settlements - settlements with their administration, troops and police. English subjects received the right of extraterritoriality, that is, not subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese authorities. Following Great Britain, detailed concessions, which have become typical for dependent countries, were obtained from China by France and the United States. Then began the division of China into economic spheres of influence, the seizure of strongholds on its territory.

Germany in 1898 ᴦ. occupied Kiao Chao Bay, imposing a 99-year lease agreement on the Chinese government. Russia at the same time took "lease" the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress of Port Arthur.
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Great Britain received on the same terms the Kowloon Peninsula and the islands adjacent to it, where it had been since 1842 ᴦ. colony of Hong Kong. Strengthening Japan as a result of the war with China 1894-1895. forced him to give up control over Korea, which became formally independent, but in fact - the sphere of influence of Japan. USA in 1899 ᴦ. came up with the doctrine of ʼʼopen doorsʼʼ in China. According to this doctrine, which was objected only by Russia, no one of the great powers should have more economic benefits than others. It also assumed that any additional Chinese concessions to one of them were accompanied by concessions to the rest of the powers.

Resistance to the domination of industrial powers over countries that found themselves in the position of colonies and semi-colonies has not ceased since the emergence of the colonial system. It has become an essential feature historical development XX century.

Asian countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the rise of mass anti-colonial movements was not uncommon. Their common feature was the focus on the restoration of the traditional way of life, the expulsion of foreigners. For example, during the so-called ʼʼBoxerʼʼ uprising in China in 1900 ᴦ. (another name is the Yihetuan uprising, ʼʼyellow bandsʼʼ), initiated by peasants and the urban poor, the rebels destroyed railways, communication lines, killed foreigners and Chinese who wore foreign clothes.

None of the anti-colonial actions under traditionalist slogans ended in success. The military-technical superiority of the colonialists was too great. At the same time, the idea of returning to the order of pre-colonial times was close only to the poorest, uneducated sections of the population, religious leaders, who were irritated by the activities of Christian missionaries. The local feudal nobility split into supporters and opponents of the new order.

In the colonies and dependent countries, there was an influential stratum of the ruling elite, officials, representatives of commercial and industrial capital, who collaborated with capital and the authorities of the metropolitan countries. In this stratum, which was called ʼʼkompradorskayaʼʼ (corrupt), as well as in other segments of the population, there was a desire for liberation. At the same time, the violent methods of the struggle for liberation were seen by her as harmful and senseless. It was clear to the educated part of the population that in response to the uprisings, the troops of the colonialists and their local allies would devastate vast territories, and, having won, would tighten the regime of government, which would weaken the chances of liberation.

Local officials, entrepreneurs, collaborating with the colonialists, tried to avoid violent methods of struggle for liberation. An alternative to them was a course towards a gradual, gradual weakening of the power of the metropolises by peaceful means. This course assumed the implementation of reforms, the mastery of industrial production in cooperation with the capital of the metropolitan countries.

In fact, the very idea of change and development was for most of the peoples of Asia a product of European conquest. The metropolises did not set themselves the goal of promoting the development of the economy of the colonies and dependent countries. Nevertheless, they created certain prerequisites for future modernization. In the colonial countries, a new layer of the ruling elite has formed, educated in developed countries and striving to modernize their societies. For the delivery of goods, the export of raw materials and plantation products, as well as for military-strategic purposes, a network of railways was created in most colonies, certain branches of the mining industry were developed, and the plantation economy was oriented to foreign markets. The peoples of the colonies gained access, albeit limited, to the achievements of European medicine. During the years of the First, and especially the Second World War, enterprises for the repair and assembly of military equipment arose in many overseas possessions and underdeveloped countries, and the production of electricity increased.

It is significant that in the 20th century the least developed countries turned out to be those Asian countries that managed to defend their independence, or those possessions where the power of the colonialists was purely nominal, limited. So, Afghanistan, which was repeatedly subjected to British invasions from the territory of British India and retained its independence, and by the end of the 20th century remains one of the few states in the world without railways, with a tribal structure of society, a predominance of subsistence economy, covered by religious and tribal wars.

The desire for accelerated development, to catch up with the powers that survived the industrial revolution, to create a modern industry, military equipment, manifested itself in many colonial and dependent countries. At the same time, to achieve quick results only Japan succeeded in this way. The source of her success was a compromise between supporters of traditionalism and modernization. The first realized that it was impossible to preserve the traditional image of Japanese society, the originality of its culture without modernizing, studying and mastering European and American science and technology, and creating a European-type education system. Such forms of implementation of the modernization process were found, which only when extremely important changed the habitual forms of life and life of the bulk of the population, an original and unique Japanese culture the beginning of the 20th century, combining many features inherent in a feudal society (the special role of the emperor and the nobility, paternalistic relations between employers and employees), with a highly developed industry.

Other colonial and dependent countries also tried to enter the path of modernization. At the same time, the interests of its implementation came into conflict with the spontaneous traditionalism of the masses, shared by many religious leaders, as well as people from the environment of the clan and feudal nobility. Modernization could be carried out only with the involvement of foreign capital and technology. It assumed development along the capitalist path, demanded an effective central government capable of carrying out reforms and supporting industry. All this was difficult to combine with the ideas of egalitarian distribution of land or communal land use popular among the masses, the aspirations of the military-feudal, bureaucratic elite to strengthen their power.

In most Asian countries, the convergence of adherents of traditionalism and supporters of development along the European path turned out to be possible only for a short time. In China, dissatisfaction with the Manchu dynasty, making constant concessions to foreign powers, doing nothing to modernize the country, was widespread. In 1911-1912 he. As a result of the revolution, China was proclaimed a republic. At the same time, adherents of the Kuomintang party that made the revolution in 1913 ᴦ. were expelled from parliament, Kuomintang leader Sun Yat-sen emigrated. With death in 1916 ᴦ. General Yuan Shikai, who usurped presidential power, China became an arena of confrontation between feudal-militarist cliques that controlled power in the provinces.

In Turkey in 1908 ᴦ. the so-called Young Turk revolution, spearheaded by the military, who sought modernization, led to the collapse of absolutism and its replacement constitutional monarchy. A parliament was created, the majority of which was won by supporters of modernization. But the results of their reign were limited. Railway construction was expanded with the participation of German capital, the army was modernized with the involvement of German officers.

At the beginning of the 20th century, in the countries of the East, with the exception of Japan, only the prerequisites for modernization were formed. Separate centers of industrial production have developed in China and Turkey. The share of the working class, hired workers employed in industry, construction and transport did not exceed 1% of the economically active population.

Features of the development of Latin American countries. More serious prerequisites for modernization existed in the countries of Latin America. Colonial dependence on Spain and Portugal was eliminated there in early XIX century. After the war of independence (1816), Argentina was liberated, in 1821 ᴦ. - Mexico, in 1824 ᴦ. - Peru, independence in 1822 ᴦ. Brazil also received, although until 1889 ᴦ. it remained a monarchy under the son and later grandson of the King of Portugal.

In 1823 ᴦ. The United States adopted the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed the inadmissibility of interference by European powers in the affairs of American states. Thanks to this, the danger of a second colonial conquest of Latin America disappeared. The United States, which had a vast and not yet fully developed territory, limited itself to the annexation of part of the territory of Mexico and the establishment of control over the Panama Canal zone, which previously belonged to Colombia.

By the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the influx of capital from the United States, partly from England, a developed network of railways was created in many Latin American countries. Only in Cuba its length turned out to be greater than in all of China. Oil production in Mexico and Venezuela grew rapidly. The mining industry developed in Chile, Peru and Bolivia, although the agrarian orientation of the economy generally prevailed.

A characteristic feature of Latin America was the existence of large landed estates - latifundia, which produced coffee, sugar, rubber, leather, etc. for the markets of developed countries. The local industry was poorly developed, the main needs for industrial goods were met by importing them from industrialized countries. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 20th century, in a number of Latin American states (Argentina, Chile), the trade union movement had already developed, and political parties had formed.

Traditionalism in Latin America had a specific character.
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The historical memory of the traditions in the states of the pre-Columbian civilization, destroyed by the European colonialists in the 16th century, was preserved only in certain hard-to-reach areas. Most of the population were descendants of children from mixed marriages of the indigenous population, Indians, immigrants from European countries, slaves exported from Africa (mestizos, mulattoes, creoles) who professed the Catholic religion. Only in Argentina did immigrants from European countries numerically predominate.

An enduring tradition since the wars of independence has been the special role of the army in political life. The existence of dictatorial regimes based on the army met the interests, first of all, of the latifundist landlords. Οʜᴎ faced the protest of plantation workers against low wages and difficult conditions, the use of non-economic, feudal methods of forced labor by latifundists.

The planters and the military were more often than not interested in any change. Dissatisfaction with the agrarian and raw material orientation of the Latin American countries in the world market was manifested primarily by the national commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which was strengthening its positions.

The Mexican revolution of 1910-1917 became a symbol of the coming changes in Latin America, in which the bourgeoisie supported the war of the landless peasantry against the latifundists with its desire to establish democracy. Despite the US military intervention in the events in Mexico, the result of the revolution was the adoption of a compromise democratic constitution of 1917 ᴦ., which established a republican system in Mexico. It remained, unlike other Latin American countries, unchanged throughout the 20th century.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

From the US government note to the UK government regarding the ʼʼʼʼʼ policy in China, September 22, 1899 ᴦ.:

“It is my Government's sincere desire, in essence, that the interests of its citizens within their respective spheres of interest in China should not be harmed by exceptional measures by any of the controlling powers. My Government hopes to keep an open market in them for the trade of the whole world,

remove dangerous sources of international irritation, and thereby hasten the combined action of the powers in Peking in order to carry out the administrative reforms so urgently needed to strengthen the imperial government and preserve the integrity of China, in which, in his opinion, the entire Western world is equally interested. It believes that the achievement of this result should be largely promoted and ensured by the declarations of various powers claiming spheres of interest in China.<...>essentially the following content:

1) that it will not in any way affect the rights of contractual ports or legitimate interests within the so-called sphere of interest or leased territory that it may have in China;

2) that the current Chinese contractual tariff will be equally applied in all ports located within the mentioned area of interest (with the exception of free ports), to all goods, regardless of nationality. That the duties thus collected are to be collected by the Chinese Government;

3) that in ports within that sphere she will charge no higher port dues on ships of a different nationality than on ships of her own, and that on railways built, controlled or operated within her sphere, no higher tariff rates will be imposed on goods belonging to subjects or citizens of other nationalities than those levied on similar goods belonging to the own citizens of this power and transported at equal distancesʼʼ.

From a Yihetuan revolutionary leaflet during the uprising in Northern China (1900):

ʼʼForeign devils have come with their teachings, and the number of Christian converts, Roman Catholics and Protestants is increasing every day. These churches have no kinship with our teaching, but, thanks to their cunning, they attracted to their side all the greedy and greedy, and perpetrated oppression on an extraordinary scale, until every honest official was bribed and became their slave in the hope of foreign wealth. This is how telegraphs and railways were founded, foreign guns and cannons began to be manufactured, and various workshops served as a delight for their spoiled nature. Foreign devils find excellent locomotives Balloons and electric lamps \ Although they ride on a stretcher that does not correspond to their rank, yet China considers them barbarians whom God condemns and sends spirits and geniuses to earth to exterminate themʼʼ.

From the final protocol between China and foreign powers in connection with the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, September 7, 1901 ᴦ .:

ʼʼArticle 5. China has agreed to ban the entry into its possession of weapons and ammunition, as well as material intended solely for the production of weapons and ammunition. Imperial Decree of August 25, 1901 ᴦ. It was decided to ban such imports for two years. New decrees are issued subsequently, to extend the given period every two years, if the Powers find it necessary. Article 6. Imperial Decree of May 22, 1901 ᴦ. His Majesty the Emperor of China undertook to pay to the Powers a reward of four hundred and fifty million haiguang lan (taels)<...>This amount will bring 4% per annum, and the capital will be paid by China at the age of 39<...>

Article 7 The Chinese Government has agreed to regard the quarter occupied by the missions as specially reserved for their use and placed under the protection of their own police;

in this quarter, the Chinese will not have the right to settle<...>Article 8. The Chinese government has agreed to tear down the forts at Ta-ku, as well as those that can interfere with free communication between Peking and the sea. To this end, steps have been taken. Article 10 The Chinese government undertook to print and promulgate the following imperial decrees within two years in all the cities of the provinces:

a) Decree of February 1, 1901, prohibiting under pain death penalty belong to an anti-European party;

b) decrees of February 13 and 21, April 29 and August 19, 1901, containing a list of punishments to which the guilty were sentenced<...>

e) a decree of February 1, 1901, by which it is declared that all governors general, governors and provincial or local officials are responsible for the order in their districts and that in the event of new anti-European disturbances or other violations of the treaties that will not be immediately suppressed and for which the perpetrators have not been punished, these officials will be immediately dismissed without the right to take up new positions and receive new honorsʼʼ.

From the work of D. Nehru ʼʼA look at world historyʼʼ. 1981. Vol. 1. P. 472,475,476:

ʼʼOne of the goals that English policy in India consistently sought was the creation of a propertied class, which, being a creature of the British, would depend on them and serve as their support in India. In this regard, the British strengthened the position of the feudal princes and created a class of large zamindars and talukdars, and even encouraged social conservatism under the pretext of non-interference in the affairs of religions. All these propertied classes were themselves interested in the exploitation of the country and in general could exist only thanks to such exploitation.<...>In India, a middle class gradually developed, accumulating some capital to invest in business.<...>The only class whose voice was heard was the new middle class; the offspring, born in fact of connection with England, began to criticize her. This class grew, and with it grew the national movementʼʼ.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. Explain how you understand the term ʼʼtraditionalismʼʼ.

2. Describe the changes that have taken place in the colonies and dependent countries as a result of the creation of colonial empires.

3. There is an assertion that colonialism brought more positive changes to the countries of Asia and Africa than negative ones. Think about and justify your point of view on this statement.

4. Give examples of mass anti-colonial uprisings: what was their common feature, what distinguished them in terms of goals, direction, means of struggle?

5. Use the examples of the history of Japan, China, India and other countries to reveal the features and consequences of modernization attempts in colonial and dependent countries. Explain your understanding of the words ʼʼspontaneous traditionalism of the masses ʼʼ.

6. Name character traits modernization of Latin American countries.

WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRIES OF ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRIES OF ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA" 2017, 2018.

Especially destructive was colonialism, which used the methods of the pre-capitalist era in the exploitation of the colonies. They included the robbery of the colonies, the export of gold, silver, cultural monuments to the mother countries, the creation of a slave trade system, which especially affected the population of Equatorial Africa in the 16th-19th centuries.

Reasons for the rise of anti-colonial movements. The metropolises of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, interested in expanding foreign markets, using the resources of the colonies, including cheap labor, tried to create a system for the orderly management of their possessions. The colonial administration, as a rule, tried to rely on the support of the local nobility (this was especially characteristic of Great Britain in India), while maintaining its power and privileges. Only the possibility of inciting feudal strife and pursuing an independent foreign and military policy was limited. The destruction of the traditional way of life was not the goal of the colonialists (for example, in India, the British left the caste system intact), nevertheless, the way of life of the peoples of the colonial countries underwent changes.

The onslaught of European goods ruined many local artisans. The peasantry, which found itself forced to pay taxes not only to local princes, but also to the colonial authorities, was ruined and deprived of its land. This destroyed the system of communal farming and subsistence farming, that is, extremely conservative, inert ways that have not changed for centuries, incompatible with any development. The released cheap labor force was used in the newly created industries that served the economy of the metropolises. This, in turn, expanded the scope of commodity-money relations and accelerated the disintegration of traditional ways.

The policy of the industrial states had the same influence on the countries dependent on them, which became the object of trade and economic expansion. So, back in the 19th century, China, having suffered a defeat in the war with Great Britain, was forced to agree to open the five largest ports for free trade, to accept the obligation to establish low customs duties (no more than 5%) on British goods. In open ports, the British received the right to create settlements - settlements with their own administration, troops and police. English subjects received the right of extraterritoriality, that is, not subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese authorities. Following Great Britain, detailed concessions, which have become typical for dependent countries, were obtained from China by France and the United States. Then began the division of China into economic spheres of influence, the seizure of strongholds on its territory.

In 1898, Germany occupied Kiao Chao Bay, imposing a 99-year lease agreement on the Chinese government. Russia at the same time "leased" the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress of Port Arthur. Great Britain received on the same terms the Kowloon Peninsula and the islands adjacent to it, where the colony of Hong Kong had been located since 1842. Strengthening Japan as a result of the war with China in 1894-1895. forced him to give up control over Korea, which became formally independent, but in fact - the sphere of influence of Japan. The USA in 1899 came up with the doctrine of "open doors" in China. Under this doctrine, which only Russia objected to, no one great power should enjoy greater economic benefits than the others. It also assumed that any additional Chinese concessions to one of them were accompanied by concessions to the rest of the powers.

Resistance to the domination of industrial powers over countries that found themselves in the position of colonies and semi-colonies has not ceased since the emergence of the colonial system. It became the most important feature of the historical development of the 20th century.

Asian countries at the beginning of the 20th century. AT XIX--XX centuries not uncommon was the rise of mass anti-colonial movements. Their common feature was the focus on restoring the traditional way of life, the expulsion of foreigners. For example, during the so-called "Boxer" uprising in China in 1900 (another name is the Yihetuan uprising, "yellow bandages"), initiated by peasants and the urban poor, the rebels destroyed railways, communication lines, killed foreigners and Chinese wearing foreign clothing.

None of the anti-colonial speeches under traditionalist slogans ended in success. The military-technical superiority of the colonialists was too great. In addition, the idea of returning to the order of pre-colonial times was close only to the poorest, uneducated sections of the population, religious leaders who were irritated by the activities of Christian missionaries. The local feudal nobility split into supporters and opponents of the new order.

In the colonies and dependent countries, there was an influential stratum of the ruling elite, officials, representatives of commercial and industrial capital, who collaborated with capital and the authorities of the metropolitan countries. In this stratum, which was called "comprador" (corrupt), as well as in other sections of the population, there was a desire for liberation. At the same time, the violent methods of the struggle for liberation were seen by her as harmful and senseless. It was clear to the educated part of the population that, in response to the uprisings, the troops of the colonialists and their local allies would devastate vast territories, and, having won, would tighten the regime of government, which would weaken the chances of liberation.

In fact, the very idea of change and development was for most of the peoples of Asia a product of European conquest. The metropolises did not set themselves the goal of promoting the development of the economy of the colonies and dependent countries. Nevertheless, certain prerequisites for future modernization were created by them. In the colonial countries, a new layer of the ruling elite has formed, educated in developed countries and striving to modernize their societies. For the delivery of goods, the export of raw materials and plantation products, as well as for military-strategic purposes, a network of railways was created in most colonies, certain branches of the mining industry were developed, and the plantation economy was oriented to foreign markets. The peoples of the colonies gained access, albeit limited, to the achievements of European medicine. During the years of the First, and especially the Second World War, enterprises for the repair and assembly of military equipment arose in many overseas possessions and underdeveloped countries, and the production of electricity increased.

The desire for accelerated development, to catch up with the powers that survived the industrial revolution, to create a modern industry, military equipment, manifested itself in many colonial and dependent countries. However, only Japan managed to achieve quick results on this path. The source of her success was a compromise between supporters of traditionalism and modernization. The first realized that it was impossible to preserve the traditional image of Japanese society, the originality of its culture without modernizing, studying and mastering European and American science and technology, and creating a European-type education system. Such forms of implementation of the modernization process were found that only when absolutely necessary changed the habitual forms of life and life of the bulk of the population, an original and unique Japanese culture of the early 20th century developed, combining many features inherent in feudal society (the special role of the emperor and the nobility, the paternalistic and employees), with a highly developed industry.

Other colonial and dependent countries also tried to enter the path of modernization. However, the interests of its implementation came into conflict with the spontaneous traditionalism of the masses, shared by many religious leaders, as well as people from the environment of the clan and feudal nobility. Modernization could be carried out only with the involvement of foreign capital and technology. It assumed development along the capitalist path, demanded an effective central government capable of carrying out reforms and supporting industry. All this was difficult to combine with the ideas of equal distribution of land or communal land use popular among the masses, the aspirations of the military-feudal, bureaucratic elite to strengthen their power.

In most Asian countries, the convergence of adherents of traditionalism and supporters of development along the European path turned out to be possible only for a short time. In China, dissatisfaction with the Manchu dynasty, making constant concessions to foreign powers, doing nothing to modernize the country, was widespread. In 1911-1912. As a result of the revolution, China was proclaimed a republic. However, the adherents of the Kuomintang Party, which made the revolution, were expelled from parliament in 1913, and Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Kuomintang, emigrated. With the death in 1916 of General Yuan Shikai, who had usurped presidential power, China became an arena for confrontation between feudal-militarist cliques that controlled power in the provinces.

In Turkey in 1908, the so-called Young Turk Revolution, led by a modernizing military, led to the collapse of absolutism and its replacement by a constitutional monarchy. A parliament was created, the majority of which was won by supporters of modernization. But the results of their reign were limited. Railway construction was expanded with the participation of German capital, the army was modernized with the involvement of German officers.

At the beginning of the 20th century, in the countries of the East, with the exception of Japan, only the prerequisites for modernization were formed. Separate centers of industrial production have developed in China and Turkey. The proportion of the working class, hired workers employed in industry, construction and transport did not exceed 1% of the active population.

Features of the development of Latin American countries. More serious prerequisites for modernization existed in the countries of Latin America. Colonial dependence on Spain and Portugal was eliminated there at the beginning of the 19th century. After the war of independence (1816), Argentina was liberated, in 1821 - Mexico, in 1824 - Peru, Brazil also gained independence in 1822, although until 1889 it remained a monarchy under the rule of a son, and then grandson of the King of Portugal.

In 1823, the United States adopted the "Monroe Doctrine", which proclaimed the inadmissibility of interference by European powers in the affairs of American states. Thanks to this, the danger of a second colonial conquest of Latin America disappeared. The United States, which had a vast and not yet fully developed territory, limited itself to the annexation of part of the territory of Mexico and the establishment of control over the Panama Canal zone, which previously belonged to Colombia.

By the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the influx of capital from the United States, partly from England, a developed network of railways was created in many Latin American countries. Only in Cuba was it longer than in all of China. Oil production in Mexico and Venezuela grew rapidly. The mining industry developed in Chile, Peru and Bolivia, although the agrarian orientation of the economy generally prevailed.

A characteristic feature of Latin America was the existence of large landed estates - latifundia, which produced coffee, sugar, rubber, leather, etc. for the markets of developed countries. The local industry was poorly developed, the basic needs for industrial goods were met by their import from industrialized countries. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 20th century, in a number of Latin American states (Argentina, Chile), the trade union movement had already developed, and political parties had formed.

Traditionalism in Latin America had a specific character. The historical memory of the traditions in the states of the pre-Columbian civilization, destroyed by the European colonialists in the 16th century, was preserved only in certain hard-to-reach areas. Most of the population were descendants of children from mixed marriages of the indigenous population, Indians, immigrants from European countries, slaves exported from Africa (mestizos, mulattos, creoles) who professed the Catholic religion. Only in Argentina did Europeans predominate numerically.

A stable tradition that has developed since the wars of independence has been the special role of the army in political life. The existence of dictatorial regimes based on the army met the interests, first of all, of the latifundist landlords. They faced the protest of plantation workers against low wages and harsh conditions, the use of non-economic, feudal methods of forced labor by latifundists.

Planters and the military most often showed disinterest in any change. Dissatisfaction with the agrarian and raw material orientation of the Latin American countries in the world market was manifested primarily by the national commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which was strengthening its positions.

The Mexican revolution of 1910-1917 became a symbol of the coming changes in Latin America, in which the bourgeoisie supported the war of the landless peasantry against the latifundists with its desire to establish democracy. Despite US military intervention in the events in Mexico, the result of the revolution was the adoption of a compromise democratic constitution in 1917, which established a republican system in Mexico. It remained, unlike other Latin American countries, unchanged throughout the 20th century.

Documents and materials

From the US Government Note to the British Government on China's "Open Door" Policy, September 22, 1899:

"My Government's sincere desire is that the interests of its citizens within their respective spheres of interest in China should not be harmed by exceptional measures by any of the controlling powers. My Government hopes to keep them open to the trade of the whole world, eliminate dangerous sources of international irritation and thereby speeding up the combined action of the powers in Peking to bring about the administrative reforms so urgently needed to strengthen the imperial government and preserve the integrity of China, in which, in his opinion, the entire Western world is equally interested. degree promoted and secured by declarations of various powers claiming spheres of interest in China<...>essentially the following content:

1) that it will not in any way affect the rights of contractual ports or legitimate interests within the so-called sphere of interest or leased territory that it may have in China;
2) that the current Chinese contractual tariff will be equally applied in all ports within the said area of interest (excluding free ports), to all goods, regardless of nationality. That the duties thus collected are to be collected by the Chinese Government;
3) that in ports within that sphere she will charge no higher port dues on ships of a different nationality than on ships of her own, and that on railways built, controlled or operated within her sphere no higher tariff rates on goods belonging to subjects or citizens of other nationalities than those charged on similar goods belonging to the own citizens of a given power and transported at equal distances.

From a Yihetuan revolutionary leaflet during the uprising in Northern China (1900):

"Foreign devils have come with their teachings, and the number of Christian converts, Roman Catholics and Protestants is increasing every day. These churches have no family ties with our teaching, but, thanks to their cunning, they have attracted to their side all the greedy and selfish and perpetrated oppression on an extraordinary scale, until every honest official was bribed and became their slave in the hope of foreign wealth.So telegraphs and railways were founded, foreign guns and cannons began to be manufactured, and various workshops served as a delight for their spoiled nature. Foreign devils find locomotives, balloons, and electric lamps excellent. Although they ride on stretchers not befitting their rank, yet China considers them barbarians whom God condemns and sends spirits and geniuses to earth to exterminate them."

From the final protocol between China and foreign powers in connection with the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, September 7, 1901:

"Article 5. China agreed to ban the importation into its possessions of weapons and ammunition, as well as material intended exclusively for the production of weapons and ammunition. By an imperial decree of August 25, 1901, it was decided to prohibit such imports for a period of two years. New decrees may be issued thereafter to extend this period every two years, if the Powers deem it necessary.Article 6 By Imperial Decree of May 22, 1901, His Majesty the Emperor of China undertook to pay to the Powers a reward of four hundred and fifty million haiguang lan (taels)<...>This amount will bring 4% per annum, and the capital will be paid by China at the age of 39<...>

Article 7 The Chinese Government has agreed to regard the quarter occupied by the missions as specially reserved for their use and placed under the protection of their own police; in this quarter, the Chinese will not have the right to settle<...>Article 8. The Chinese government has agreed to tear down the forts at Taku, as well as those that may interfere with free communication between Peking and the sea. To this end, steps have been taken. Article 10 The Chinese Government undertook to print and promulgate the following imperial decrees within two years in all the cities of the provinces:

a) Decree of February 1, 1901, prohibiting under pain of death to belong to an anti-European party;
b) decrees of February 13 and 21, April 29 and August 19, 1901, containing a list of punishments to which the guilty were sentenced<...>
e) a decree of February 1, 1901, by which it is declared that all governors general, governors and provincial or local officials are responsible for the order in their districts and that in the event of new anti-European disturbances or other violations of the treaties that will not be immediately suppressed and for who the perpetrators have not been punished, these officials will be immediately dismissed without the right to take up new positions and receive new honors.

From the work of D. Nehru "A look at world history". 1981. Vol. 1. P. 472,475,476:

"One of the aims consistently pursued by English policy in India was the creation of a propertied class which, being a creature of the English, would depend on them and serve as their support in India. The English therefore strengthened the position of the feudal princes and created a class of great zamindars and talukdars and even encouraged social conservatism under the pretext of non-interference in religious affairs.All these propertied classes were themselves interested in the exploitation of the country and in general could exist only thanks to such exploitation<...>In India, a middle class gradually developed, accumulating some capital to invest in business.<...>The only class whose voice was heard was the new middle class; the offspring, born in fact of connection with England, began to criticize her. This class grew, and with it the national movement grew."

Questions and tasks

1. Explain how you understand the term "traditionalism".
2. Describe the changes that have taken place in the colonies and dependent countries as a result of the creation of colonial empires.
3. There is an assertion that colonialism brought more positive changes to the countries of Asia and Africa than negative ones. Think about and justify your point of view on this statement.
4. Give examples of mass anti-colonial uprisings: what was their common feature, what distinguished them in terms of goals, direction, means of struggle?
5. Use the examples of the history of Japan, China, India and other countries to reveal the features and consequences of modernization attempts in colonial and dependent countries. Explain your understanding of the words "spontaneous traditionalism of the masses".
6. What are the characteristic features of the modernization of Latin America.

Most of the countries of Asia and Africa at the beginning of the 20th century continued to exist in the status of colonies of industrial states. The metropolises, despite the capitalist era, continued to exploit the colonial lands by classical feudal methods: the forced export of precious metals, the creation of a slave trade system, and high taxation in kind and money.

Anti-colonial movements

It was during this period that active resistance to liberation movements began in the colonial countries. The main goal of their activities was the expulsion of monopolists and the change in the existing barbarian predatory order. The participants in the anti-colonial movements were the most vulnerable sections of the population - the peasantry, workers and clergy.

The local elite actively cooperated with the authorities of the monopolies and did not feel any particular infringement on their rights and freedoms. Members of the anti-colonial movements were in no hurry to enter into wars of liberation, as they understood that in the person of the enemy they had powerful states with a strong army and technical base which the countries of Asia and Africa did not possess.

The liberation from the power of the metropolises came from the most unexpected side on the territory of Europe, the First World War was unleashed, which led to the fall of most powerful empires.

After the end of World War II, the states of Asia and Africa entered a period of significant economic and cultural upsurge. The population of these regions for the first time got acquainted with medicines, which were previously not considered necessary to provide the colonial territories of the metropolis.

The industry was significantly modernized, initial educational establishments which eliminated the illiteracy of the population. However, these states could not fully support the European path of development.

Development of Latin American countries

Compared with the countries of Asia and Africa, the states of Latin America had more serious prerequisites for economic and technological development. Absolutely all Latin American countries freed themselves from the power of the metropolitan countries in the 19th century and acquired state independence during the same period.

The first half of the 20th century was marked by an industrial boom, new factories and plants were built, and Agriculture, new railways(total length railway Chile was several times the length of the Chinese routes).

Latin America has become the world's leading exporter of plant and animal products. Until the outbreak of World War II, the region enjoyed the logistical support of the United States and European states.

But, despite the visible growth of the economy, the development of Latin American countries was overshadowed by the power of dictatorial regimes that existed in the region until the end of the 20th century. In many countries in the 1930s a military totalitarian dictatorship was established.

After the fall of the Third Reich, the states of Latin America became a haven for German and Italian fascists. Socio-political stability was undermined by regular military coups d'etat, as a result of which one tyrant replaced another. Liberal democratic government in Latin America was only established in 1991.

By the beginning of the XX century. most of the countries of Asia and Africa still retained their national and cultural identity and were in varying degrees dependence on the leading European states. A feature of Eastern civilizations (with the exception of Japan) was their agrarian-traditional character. However, the new trends of the XX century. gradually penetrated into these countries. National liberation movements took new forms. The countries of Latin America, although they achieved independence, were greatly influenced by Europe and the United States.

Territorial redistribution of the world. After the First World War there was a territorial redistribution of the world. The defeated Germany lost its colonial possessions.

In 1918, the great powers proclaimed declaratively the right of peoples to self-determination. For its implementation, a mandated system of colony administration. It was proposed by England and France in order to legitimize the German colonies they captured in Africa, Asia, the Pacific Ocean and the possessions of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.

Mandate, given by the League of Nations, allowed the "advanced nations" to carry out a "sacred mission", that is, to patronize peoples who "are not yet able to govern themselves" and their own territories. This formulation reflected the ideology of the "white" colonialism, which was followed by the leaders of European states. It was mainly Great Britain and France, the traditional colonial powers, who received the mandates to govern. Ultimately, the position of the colonies changed little after the First World War. The colonial countries imposed on the subject peoples a development model that copied European models and violated local historical traditions, which caused a natural rebuff and resistance.

National freedom movement for independence and modernization. National Liberation Movement -- it is the struggle of the oppressed peoples for national independence, economic independence, spiritual liberation and social progress. It was headed by the nationally and patriotically minded bourgeoisie, officers, intelligentsia, clergy, leaders of tribal and religious clans. The social base of the anti-colonial struggle was made up of the peasantry, workers, artisans, merchants, small entrepreneurs, and employees. Typically, all these social groups went to achieve their goal under the banner of the ideology of nationalism. In this case, nationalism was a progressive phenomenon, since this ideology united the nation in the struggle against foreign domination. Big role religion played a role in the national liberation movements (Islam in the Near and Middle East, Hinduism in India, etc.). The methods of struggle depended on the specific historical situation, the correlation of political forces, the degree of consolidation of patriotic circles in society, and other factors, and usually included demonstrations, rallies, uprisings, civil disobedience actions, etc.

National liberation movements not only took various forms, but also had a number of regional characteristics.

China. China was formally an independent state, but Western countries, Russia and Japan were constantly fighting for influence in this country. The course of modernization here was extremely complicated by the internal political struggle after the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. The main obstacle to the progressive development of China was the military-feudal cliques, which actually split the country into a number of separate independent regions.

National Party (Kuomintang), created by Sun Yat-sen back in 1912, set as its task the establishment of national sovereignty, the unification of the country, the elimination of the remnants of feudalism and overcoming centuries of backwardness. After 1917, Sun Yat-sen developed a new content of the "three people's principles" (nationalism, democracy and people's welfare), which were supposed to lead to the victory of the national revolution and the establishment of a democratic republic and a society of "state socialism". The beginning of China's active struggle for national independence is considered "May 4th Movement" 1919, when Beijing students opposed the transfer of Shandong province to Japan.

Kuomintang and communist party China (CPC, founded in 1921), in alliance with the USSR, managed to create a National Revolutionary Army and a base for military operations in southern China. The national revolution against the military-feudal cliques began with a patriotic "May 30 Movements" 1925 It ended in the summer 1928 successful completion of the Northern Expedition of the National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kaishi and the unification of the country under the rule of the Kuomintang. But the split between the Communists and the Kuomintang led to a long and brutal civil war. The CPC fought for the transformation of the national democratic revolution into a socialist revolution, while the Kuomintang fought for the bourgeois-democratic path of the country's development. Until 1949, Chiang Kai-shek was the official leader of China.

The split in the Chinese revolutionary camp was exploited by Japan, whose aggressive policy posed a serious danger to all of China. In the mid-1930s, Chiang Kai-shek was forced to turn to the USSR for help, and then he and his supporters united with the CCP to jointly fight against Japanese aggression.

India. India was the largest British colony. The national liberation movement was led by a political party Indian National Congress (INC), whose ideologist and spiritual leader was Mahatma Gandhi. The system of political, philosophical and moral-ethical views he created - Gandhism- grew out of the peasant specifics of India and the characteristics of Hinduism.

Gandhism became the official ideology of the INC. The essence of Gandhism was the welfare society and non-violent resistance ( satyagraha) as a means to achieve this society.

Gandhi denied the class struggle, because he considered it a factor dividing society.

Satyagraha included a boycott of imported goods, schools, courts and public institutions; the closure of stores owned by the colonial authorities; holding religious actions and demonstrations in protest against the actions of the British administration. Even in cases where British troops opened fire on demonstrators or protesters, Gandhi insisted on observing the principle of non-violence. These forms of struggle played a significant role in India's independence after World War II.

Turkey. As a result of the defeat in the First World War, Turkey was on the verge of losing its sovereignty and territorial integrity. A number of regions of the country were occupied by foreign troops. AT August 1920 Entente leaders imposed the Treaty of Sevres on the Sultan, under which Turkey was essentially divided between England, France, Italy and Greece. In these conditions liberation struggle Turkish people in 1918-1923 led by a general M. Kemal.

At the cost of great sacrifices, they managed to defeat the "caliphate army" and the troops of the interventionists. AT 1922 The Turkish Grand National Assembly passed a law abolishing the Sultanate. AT 1923 a new political organization was created - Republican People's Party (CHP). In the same year, Turkey was proclaimed a republic. These acts completed the process of demolition of the old political system and the creation of the Turkish national state, called Kemalist revolution.

In the second half of the 1920s - 1930s. in Turkey, modernization was carried out in various spheres of cultural, socio-economic and political life. Also in 1924 the Caliphate was abolished, the Ministry of Religious Affairs was abolished, madrasas (religious educational institutions) were closed, and legal proceedings were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy. A new administrative division was introduced into vilayets (provinces), subordinate directly to the center. These reforms laid the foundation for the first republican constitution of 1924, which formalized the rule of the national bourgeoisie and landlords. A one-party CHP regime was established in the country. In 1925-1928. New European-style criminal and civil codes were adopted. Polygamy was forbidden, the European calendar, European clothes and a new Latin alphabet instead of the old Arabic. In 1934, a law on the introduction of surnames was issued. M. Kemal adopted a surname Ataturk, What does "father of the Turks" mean? The main content of economic policy was statism. In the course of the reforms, the ideology finally took shape Kemalism- one of the currents of Turkish bourgeois nationalism. The key element of Kemalism was the principle laicism, or secular state.

With the outbreak of World War II, Turkey declared its neutrality, then it maneuvered between the warring powers of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis and the member states anti-Hitler coalition. Only in February 1945 did the country declare war on Germany and Japan.

Iran. A feature of the national liberation movement in Iran was the struggle of all patriotic forces against the influence of Great Britain and Russia (USSR) in the country. After the occupation of Iranian territory by British troops (1918), armed resistance to the interventionists began. To power in 1925 came reza shah, founder of the new Shah dynasty Pahlavi. After the Shah's personal dictatorship was established, reforms began in the country aimed at modernizing the state and consolidating the nation. But the constant struggle between supporters of the monarchy and the Iranian bourgeoisie led to the fact that the influence of more developed countries increased in Iran.

Africa. On the African continent, the national liberation movement acquired its most active forms in Egypt and Morocco. Major uprisings in 1919 and 1921 led by the liberal Wafd party forced Britain to sign 1922 declaration on the granting of "independence" to Egypt, but the British retained their influence in this country for a long time. In Morocco, in the highlands of the Rif, in 1921-1926 the Reef tribes, having proclaimed a republic, put up stubborn resistance to France and Spain.

In general, the liberation movement between the two wars was an important political factor. The countries of Asia and Africa rose more and more resolutely in the struggle to achieve true independence.

Features of the development of Japan. Against the background of the difficult situation in most Asian countries, Japan was a positive exception. Already at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. it experienced an accelerated pace of economic development. This country, which followed the path of relative Europeanization, escaped the colonial fate of most Asian countries. At the beginning of the XX century. Japanese civilization even tried to become a new geopolitical center and stepped up colonial expansion under the slogan of "Great Asia". Its aggression was mainly directed at Korea, China, and the island of Taiwan. In the 1930s the ruling elite proclaimed a course towards the creation of a "new political and economic structure." This meant further modernization of the country, strengthening of the military-state control over the Japanese economy, as well as the spread of totalitarian tendencies in political life. Japan's rapprochement Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

Latin America. In the first half of the XX century. the development of the economy of Latin America had a pronounced raw material export character. Argentina and Uruguay exported meat and grain. The countries of the tropical zone of Central America and the Caribbean, Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil exported fruits, coffee and sugar. Mexico, Venezuela, Peru, Bolivia, Chile supplied mineral raw materials (silver, oil, strategic metals, tin, copper, etc.) to the world market. The raw material specialization of the economy forced Latin American countries to import industrial products and Hi-tech from Europe and USA.

The global economic crisis has led to a sharp reduction in demand for agricultural and raw materials, a fall in national production, an increase in unemployment and a decrease in the living standards of the population. In the countries of Latin America, social contradictions have become aggravated. Revolutions took place in Brazil and Cuba, and a guerrilla struggle unfolded in Nicaragua. To get out of the crisis ruling circles Latin American countries have stepped up the policy of state regulation. At the same time american president F. D. Roosevelt proclaimed a policy towards Latin America " good neighbor”, which meant the US refusal to intervene in the countries of the region.

Questions and tasks

1 What hindered and what contributed to the modernization of the socio-political and economic systems Eastern society in the interwar period?
2 How was the problem of colonies solved at the Paris Peace Conference?
3 Define the terms: mandate, mandate system of colony administration. Did the mandate system solve the problem of colonies? What grounds did D. Lloyd George have for characterizing it as follows: "Mandates are just a cover for annexations"?
4 Fill in the table "National liberation movement in the countries of the East in the interwar period." What is the basis of the commonality of the national liberation movement in the countries of the East? What factors caused its differences?

5 Name politicians Eastern countries that led the national liberation movement in their countries. With the help of additional literature, make a political portrait of one of them (of your choice).

In the late 1920s In Japan, the “Tanaka memorandum” became known, the original of which has not been found to date, in connection with which many researchers consider it a fake. Analyze the passage from this document and give your opinion on its authenticity: “For the sake of self-defense and the protection of others, Japan will not be able to eliminate the difficulties in East Asia if it does not pursue a policy of “blood and iron” ... In order to conquer China, we must first conquer Manchuria and Mongolia. In order to conquer the world, we must first conquer China. If we succeed in conquering China, all the other countries of Asia Minor, India, and also the countries of the southern seas will fear us and capitulate to us."

7. Determine the features of the socio-economic development of Latin America in the interwar period.

We propose to discuss

Consider why Japan was the only country in the East where fascisation of society took place.

The collapse of the colonial system. Stages of decolonization

After the end of World War II, the life of the peoples of Asia and Africa begins new stage. In countries that were still in colonial dependence, a powerful wave of liberation movement arose.

The events of World War II contributed to the weakening of the political dominance of European states in their colonies. They could no longer seriously influence the situation there. The colonies also changed during the war years. Many of them strengthened the national economy, which worked for the military needs of the metropolis, the positions of the national bourgeoisie strengthened, the working class increased, and new patriotic organizations arose. In a number of countries in Southeast Asia, national armed forces were created, which fought against the Japanese invaders and gained experience in armed struggle. All this created the conditions for the collapse of colonialism. Decolonization was also accelerated by the confrontation that began between the two "superpowers" - the USSR and the USA, since each of them sought to strengthen its camp by attracting the peoples of the periphery.

The process of decolonization is conditionally divided into three stages (three waves). The first stage lasted from 1945 until the mid-1950s. During this stage, the countries of Asia freed themselves from colonial dependence. The countries of Southeast Asia and the Middle East were the first to declare independence.

Under the conditions of the collapse of the colonial system, the emerging metropolitan states behaved differently. England pursued a more flexible policy in the colonial question. Therefore, she managed to avoid a military confrontation with the countries that were being liberated. Even more - she managed to long time retain control of their former colonies by forming the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The colonial policy of France was characterized by a lack of flexibility. The French government sought to restore the pre-war order of things, without stopping at the same time before using forceful measures, frank diktat. Such actions led to a confrontation with their former colonies. As a result, France was drawn into colonial wars. So, in 1946-1954, she waged a colonial war in Indochina. This war ended with the defeat of France.

The second stage of decolonization lasted from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s. During these years, the decolonization of North and Tropical Africa took place. 34 countries freed themselves from colonial dependence. The collapse of the British, French and Belgian colonial empires is coming to an end. 1960, during which 17 African states gained independence, went down in history as the "Year of Africa".

The third stage lasted from 1975 to 1990 and was characterized by the completion of the decolonization of South Africa. The main event of this stage was the collapse of the oldest Portuguese colonial empire. Its "survivability" was due to the fact that Portugal, which did not have its own economic opportunities for the development of the natural resources of its colonies, allowed foreign capital there. As a result - Portuguese colonial empire turned into a "collective colony" of the West. Western countries were interested in maintaining the Portuguese colonial regime in Africa. But in 1974, a democratic revolution took place in Portugal, which ended the former authoritarian regime. The Portuguese colonial empire was overthrown, and new states appeared on the political map of the world (Angola, Mozambique, etc.). In 1990, the last colony in Africa, Namibia, gained independence. This event completes the global process of elimination of colonialism.

The main result of decolonization is the emergence of about 100 independent states on the former colonial periphery. The new states became an important factor world politics. The peoples of the liberated countries got the opportunity to choose the paths of development, taking into account national traditions and cultural and civilizational characteristics.

Features of the development of the countries of the East in the 40-90s

Serious tasks appeared before the young liberated countries: strengthening their political independence, gaining economic independence, carrying out social transformations and developing culture. On questions about the way, methods and timing of solving these problems in many developing countries, a sharp confrontation unfolded between various political forces.

Many countries that have liberated and in which bourgeois relations are deeply and firmly rooted have gone to the countries of the West and have chosen the path of capitalist development (India, Pakistan, South Korea, Nigeria, etc.). In these countries, they staked on the parallel existence of various forms of ownership, the development of market relations, political and ideological pluralism, and the strengthening of comprehensive ties with advanced capitalist countries. A feature of the development of capitalism in the countries of Asia and especially Africa lies in the underdevelopment of the private sector, the weakness of large and medium-sized capital. Therefore, the state often showed great activity in the economic sphere: it created key industries and enterprises within the public sector, regulated and directed the development of the private sector in the right direction, promoted national entrepreneurship in its fight against foreign capital, etc.

A number of countries in Asia and Africa have chosen a non-capitalist path of development (or "socialist orientation"). As a rule, these countries were characterized by the presence of a significant (sometimes dominant) public sector, centralized regulation economy, carrying out agrarian reforms, which resulted in a strong cooperative sector, openly authoritarian nature of political structures, significant restriction of civil liberties, orientation towards the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. The idea of a non-capitalist path was especially popular in the 6070s. In the 1980s, almost all developing countries, along this path, found themselves in a deep economic and political crisis. With the growth of the crisis in the Soviet Union and after its collapse, many countries of "socialist orientation" (Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, etc.). They changed their course and embarked on the path of economic and political liberalization.

Difficulties in the economic development of young states

Most of the independent states are in a difficult situation due to their socio-economic and cultural backwardness. For the vast majority of African countries, for example, there has been a trend towards a slowdown in economic development in recent decades. The problem of underdevelopment of these countries is increasing due to the increase in the growth rate of their population. As output growth does not keep pace with population growth, per capita income falls. To beginning of XXI century, economic backwardness has become main problem African countries.

The economic situation in some countries of Asia and Africa is getting worse because of the desire of the existing regimes there to enrich themselves at the expense of their own peoples. In Africa, for example, the policy of "Africanization" of government and administration, carried out by all independent countries, gives mixed results. On the one hand, it has obvious positive consequences, since all leading positions in politics and the economy are passing into the hands of Africans. But on the other hand, this policy opened the way for the quick enrichment of dishonest people. Bribery, embezzlement, nepotism flourished.

An important economic problem facing many young states is the peculiar export specialization of these countries (cotton, citrus fruits, coffee, etc.) that developed during the colonial period and is difficult to overcome. Such one-sided development has narrowed their economic opportunities, made them directly dependent on the changing situation on world markets, on changes in world prices.

Huge external debt has been and remains an acute problem for most Asian and African states.

In a number of regions of the East, rapid population growth ("population explosion") caused agrarian overpopulation. In some areas this has led to real disaster. An example of this is the zone of Africa north of the Sahara, where, due to the violation of the ecological balance (deforestation, plowing of all suitable lands, depletion of sources drinking water etc.) since the 1970s there has been a constant threat of famine.

High population growth rates, characteristic of most Asian and African countries, complicate the solution of the problem of overcoming backwardness. Huge unemployment - a consequence of rapid population growth - entails keeping wages low and slowing down technological progress. Low level economy of many states has led to a sharp decline in government spending on education, health care, vocational training. And this, in turn, has preserved the existing problems for a long time.