The countries of Asia and Africa in the second half of the 20th - early 21st century. The countries of South Asia in the second half of the 20th - early 21st century

One of the most significant, global processes world history in the second half of the 20th century. was the liberation of the peoples of Asia and Africa from colonial and semi-colonial dependence, the collapse of colonial empires. As a result, several dozens of new independent states appeared in the world, the peoples of which, from the “objects” of history, became its active creators.

Liberation panorama

The process of liberation of colonial and dependent countries, which lasted several decades, was full of tension and drama. It combined daily struggles and climactic, turning points, the meaning of which went beyond the national history. These included, for example, the proclamation of the Republic of India in 1950, the liberation of 17 African states in 1960 at once, the fall of the last colonial empire, the Portuguese, in the mid-1970s (it is noteworthy that the Portuguese were the first to come to Africa as colonizers and the last to leave from her). Masses of people participated in the movement for independence, bright, original leaders came to the fore. It can be said without exaggeration that the result of these events was a change in the face of the world, the emergence of completely new phenomena and processes in it.

The leaders of the liberation struggle in individual countries had different social origins, views and convictions, and political experience. Some of them, like, for example, J. Nehru, became public and politicians by family tradition, continuing the work of their parents. Others have worked their way up from the social ranks, having managed to obtain an education and a profession that led them to the liberation movement. For still others, a military career served as a launching pad. Among the leaders of the liberation movement of the peoples of Africa in the 1950s-1960s there were many people who belonged to the scientific and creative intelligentsia. Thus, the first president of the Republic of Ghana, K. Nkrumah, had the title of Master of Pedagogy and Philosophy, the head of the government of Senegal, L. S. Senghor, was a sociologist and one of the outstanding African poets. The first president of the Republic of Angola A. A. Neto is also known as a prominent cultural figure, writer and poet.

Ways and models of development

Path choice. From the first steps of political independence, the states of Asia and Africa were faced with questions: which way to go further? How to break out of backwardness and poverty, to catch up with the advanced countries?

The world of developed states was split in those years into Western and Eastern (capitalist and socialist) blocs. The liberated countries were offered, respectively, two paths - capitalist or socialist. Today, the conventionality of these definitions has become apparent. But in those years they were considered as fundamentally various options development, with particular emphasis on ideological and political confrontation. The choice of the liberated countries was often primarily a political orientation towards one or another group of states. Politics in such cases "walked ahead" of the economy.

In countries South-East Asia, the liberation of which took place at the end of World War II and immediately after its completion, the delimitation of movements and groups within the liberation movement, their cooperation with various external forces led to the split of some countries (Vietnam, Korea), violation of the territorial integrity of others (separation of Taiwan from China) .

In the late 1950s - 1970s, most of the young states retained the "capitalist orientation" inherited from the former mother countries. These were, first of all, countries where the industrial structure turned out to be relatively advanced. At the same time, new features appeared in their development - the creation of a significant public sector, state regulation of the economy, the introduction of long-term planning, state economic and social programs.

A "non-capitalist", socialist orientation was adopted by a smaller number of liberated countries. In the 1960s, about 30 states declared such a choice; by the end of the 1980s, there were about ten of them. Often these were countries with a predominance of pre-industrial, sometimes communal relations. The transition from communal property to socialized property seemed to them the fastest and most painless way to solve their economic and social problems.

In countries that embarked on this path in the 1960s (Algeria, Syria, etc.), gradual transformations of a general democratic nature were carried out. The forces that came to power most often took revolutionary-democratic positions and did not share Marxist ideas. The states that adopted a "non-capitalist" orientation in the 1970s (Angola, Afghanistan, Ethiopia) were led by politicians who claimed to be "guided by the ideas of scientific socialism." Accordingly, the tasks they set were of a more radical nature. In reality, these countries are faced with many problems. They were underdeveloped, there was practically no working class, which, according to ideological concepts, should have become the backbone of the new system, the peasantry in its modern sense was not formed either, community-tribal relations played a significant role, ethnic, tribal, religious contradictions were not overcome. All this created a gap between the put forward slogans and reality.

Among the countries of Asia and Africa there were also those that chose not one of the two proposed by the European world, but their own ("third", "fourth") path of development. One example of such a choice demonstrated Iran in which the so-called "Islamic state" was established.

In 1979, as a result of the anti-monarchist revolution in the country, the Shah's regime was overthrown and the Islamic Republic was proclaimed. According to the constitution, the legislative power began to belong to the Majlis (parliament), and the executive power to the president and the council of ministers. At the same time, the activities of both the president and the government are controlled by the highest spiritual and political authority - the velayet-i-faqih (one of the leaders of the Iranian revolution, Ayatollah R. Khomeini, was one of the leaders of the Iranian revolution until his death). The basis of legislation, of the entire internal life of the country, is the establishment of the holy book of Muslims - the Koran and the code of everyday norms - sharia. According to the constitution, the leading role in society belongs to the Muslim clergy.

A special path was chosen in Libya. In September 1969, the performance of an organization of young officers led by M. Gaddafi led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the proclamation of a republic. In 1977, a decree announced the establishment of a "regime of people's power", a new name for the country was adopted - the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (jamahir in Arabic - "popular masses"). The highest authorities in the country are the General People's Congress and the Supreme People's Committee. The post of head of state was taken by M. Gaddafi, whose official title is "Leader of the September 1 Revolution." He put forward the concept that the path to democracy lies through a “people's revolution”, establishing a regime where power is exercised not by the party, not by the class, not by the parliament, but by “the whole people” (through popular assemblies and committees).

Evolution or leap? In the early years of independent India, J. Nehru wrote: “Should we follow the English, French or American path? Do we have 100-150 years to reach our goal? This is completely unacceptable. In that case, we'll just die."

It can be safely assumed that the question is: how, in what way and at what expense to overcome backwardness, to achieve dynamic development? - set before themselves the leaders of many liberated countries. In the variety of answers to it, two approaches can be distinguished. In one, the idea of evolutionary development prevails, when the new is created in unity with the traditional, transforms what already exists, in accordance with the spirit of the times, but without destroying the previously established foundations. Thus, J. Nehru noted that the history of India “is a process of continuous adaptation of old ideas to a changing environment, old forms to new ones. In view of this, there are no interruptions in the development of culture in Indian history and, despite repeated changes, there is continuity from the ancient times of Mohenjo-Daro to our century.

Another approach is focused on a breakthrough, a leap in development. It manifested itself in the "great leap" of the late 1950s in China, the so-called "leap of the tigers" - the "new industrial countries" of Southeast Asia in the 1970-1980s, the economic recovery in the same years in a number of oil-producing Arab states . The sources of the "jump" in individual countries were different - investments from outside, profits from the exploitation of natural resources, cheap labor, etc. Its methods also differed (the use of advanced technologies, the organization of production, labor policy, etc.).

Liberated countries in the modern world

One of the main tasks facing the young states of Asia and Africa in the second half of the 20th century was the achievement of economic and cultural independence. Related to this is the problem of confronting neo-colonialism as a system of unequal economic and political relations imposed by the leading industrial powers and transnational capital. The post-colonial exploitation of the countries of Asia and Africa is carried out through the penetration of transnational companies into their economies, economic dictate based on the huge external debt of these countries, military pressure.

The economic activity of foreign monopolies in the countries of Asia and Africa is selective. They open their enterprises in more developed countries, where there are rich natural resources, where there is a cheap labor market, where low wages are combined with the presence of disciplined, easily trained workers. The policy of the international monopolies in the countries of Asia and Africa is characterized by the promotion of the agrarian specialization of the economy in raw materials, the development of mainly the lower levels of industrial production (mining and manufacturing, the manufacture of semi-finished products, etc.), and the export of environmentally harmful industries from developed countries to these regions.

One of the most acute problems for the countries of Asia and Africa is the external debt. In the second half of the 1980s, it accounted for almost 2/5 of their annual gross production of goods and services. These states often use all the foreign aid they receive to pay interest and other obligations on their external debt.

Gaining independence, striving for dynamic development led the states of Asia and Africa to actively participate in international political and economic cooperation, in the work of the UN and other organizations. Many of them became the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (its first conference was held in Belgrade in 1961), which already included 100 states by the mid-1980s. Supporters of the movement advocated non-participation in military-political blocs, for peace and international security, and the restructuring of international relations on the basis of equality and justice.

In 1963, the Organization of African Unity arose, which advocated the strengthening of national sovereignty, political and economic cooperation of African countries, against all types of colonialism and neo-colonialism, racism and apartheid (by the end of the 20th century, it consisted of more than 50 states). In 2001 it was replaced by the African Union. A number of international organizations, including the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and regional associations, also serve to protect the economic interests of Asian and African countries.

This review characterizes the main processes, trends and problems of the development of Asian and African countries in the second half of the 20th century. Further, the situations in individual states, groups of countries are considered.

Japan

From defeat to leadership, "Japanese miracle". This can be called the path traveled by Japan in the second half of the 20th century. A country that was defeated in a war, deprived of all previously conquered territories, subjected to atomic bombing, in a few decades has become one of the leading states of the industrial world.

What was the basis of this success? Historians believe that the main role in it was played by the Japanese culture that appeared in Japan since the end of the 19th century. the ability to modernize, while rapid, dynamic development was carried out on the basis of traditional relations for a given society. Japan's post-war economy was marked by such features as high growth rates of industrial production, wide application the latest technologies, expansion of foreign economic relations. In the difficult post-war years, the slogan "Export first!" was put forward in the country. The products of Japanese industry have become the standard of quality. Japanese goods began to penetrate the world markets. The country's share in the exports of the Western world increased during 1950-1979. from 1.3 to 8.5%. In the 1970s, Japanese monopolies greatly expanded the export of capital, and in the 1980s, Japan overtook the United States as the world's largest banking country.

Figures and facts

From the late 1950s to the late 1970s, Japanese car production increased 100 times. In 1979, 10 million cars were produced, almost the same as in the USA. In the early 1980s, more cars were being produced than in the United States, with half of Japanese cars being exported.

In the 1960s, the Japanese industry overtook the United States in the number of radios produced, and in the 1970s in the production of televisions. At the same time, Japan was ahead of Germany in the production of watches.

Explaining the reasons for such a successful development of the country, experts talk not only about the rapid renewal of capital, the use of the latest world scientific discoveries and inventions, Japan's insignificant military spending, etc. The importance of traditional culture labor - brought up over the centuries of diligence, discipline, striving for common success. At medium and small enterprises in Japan, the relations of employees are built as in a big family - with the subordination of the younger to the elders, the elders taking care of the younger ones. Thus, the human factor plays no less important role than economic and technological factors.

The scientific, technical and economic achievements of Japan have also been facilitated by a consistent policy of supporting secondary and higher education. In the late 1980s, 93% of Japanese children received a complete secondary 12-year education, more than a third continued their studies at universities and colleges.

In the political sphere, the embodiment of the traditional foundations of Japanese society is the monarchical form of the state that has survived to this day. The emperor is not engaged in the daily administration of the country, he acts as a "symbol of the state and the unity of the nation", the supreme guardian of the state religion of Shinto, personifies the unified spiritual basis of Japanese society.

In the postwar years, Japan developed a system of multi-party parliamentary democracy. For almost 40 years, the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), essentially a conservative party, was in power. Opposition from the left was made up of the Socialist Party and the Communists. During the crisis years of the 1970s, the position of the LDP was weakened; it lost its majority in parliament several times. In 1993-1996 for the first time in the post-war years, coalition governments were in power, including those led by the socialist T. Murayama. At the beginning of the XXI century. The LDP regained its parliamentary majority.

Japan's foreign policy in the post-war decades was determined by decisions to demilitarize the country. In the 9th article of the Japanese constitution of 1947, "three non-nuclear principles" were written down: not to have, not to produce and not to import nuclear weapons. Instead of the army, "self-defense forces" were created. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, the country's military spending began to increase, and Japanese troops began to take part in international maneuvers. The military potential of Japan has increased.

Development Paths of East, Southeast and South Asia

This part of Asia was the focus of several historical civilizations, each of which went its own way of development. Liberation from colonial and semi-colonial dependence gave the peoples of the region the opportunity for self-determination and control over their own destiny. However, they were faced with the choice already mentioned above. And it was here that the choice was accompanied by a split of previously united countries into states with different social systems.

China

After the end of World War II in China, a civil war between supporters of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China (CCP) continued for several more years. In 1949 it ended with the defeat of the Kuomintang army. Chiang Kai-shek and the remnants of his troops took refuge on the island of Taiwan. Subsequently, an authoritarian regime was established in Taiwan, headed by Chiang Kai-shek, and then by his son Jiang Jingguo. From 1949 to 1987, a state of emergency was in effect on the island. The preservation of the Taiwanese regime was facilitated by diplomatic and military support from the United States.

On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed. In the first half of the 1950s, the PRC adopted a policy of building socialism along the Soviet lines. At the same time, the uniqueness of China was taken into account, the preservation of small private ownership of the means of production was envisaged, elements of a mixed economy were allowed, etc. But it was not easy to raise a huge country out of devastation and poverty. And the Chinese leader Mao Zedong did not have enough patience for a long journey. Already in 1955, the pace of collectivization and industrialization began to "spur up". After the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult, Mao Zedong, in an effort to maintain his power in the party, curtailed contacts with the Soviet party and state leadership.

In May 1958, the course of the "three red banners" was proclaimed, which included the "new general line", the "great leap" and the "people's communes". The slogan of the new course was the saying: "Three years of hard work - ten thousand years of happiness!"

The industry has received inflated tasks. Agricultural collectives united into large "people's communes", in which everything was socialized, right down to household utensils. Each commune included several thousand peasant farms. They were supposed to become self-sufficient, including the production of steel, tools, etc. The construction of many blast furnaces began, in which low-quality steel was smelted in an artisanal way. A year later, it became clear that the “jump” had failed. The country was left without steel and without food. In the early 1960s, she suffered a famine.

The next revolutionary campaign covered the political and ideological sphere. In 1966, the “great proletarian cultural revolution” began. One of her mottos was: "Open fire on headquarters!" To fulfill this task, purges were carried out of the leading party and state bodies, teachers were expelled from higher educational institutions, and representatives of the intelligentsia were sent "for re-education" to the village. Home driving force cultural revolution became student and working youth - equipped with quotes from Mao Zedong hungweibing ("red guards") and zaofani ("rebels"). The "Great Pilot", as Mao Zedong was called, said: "We need decisive people, young, without much education, with strong positions and political experience, to take matters into their own hands."

After the death of Mao Zedong (September 1976) power passed to his widow and several associates - the so-called "Group of Four". Not wanting to change anything in the country, they tried to bet on the concept of "poor socialism", but were soon overthrown. The new leaders were faced with the question of what course to take next.

One of the oldest figures in the Chinese Communist Party played a decisive role in the transition to a new policy Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997).

Having joined the party in 1924, he went a long way, full of trials. He was deprived of party posts three times, including during the years of the "great cultural revolution", when his entire family was persecuted. Return to power in 1977, Deng Xiaoping used to make a turn in the development of the country. At the same time, he retained the conviction that economic development would be successful if it was directed by a strong party.

Since 1979, under the slogan of "socialist modernization", economic and social reforms have begun in China. In the countryside, a “yard contract” was introduced (peasants could rent land for 15 years), it was allowed to purchase equipment, use hired labor. In industry, enterprises expanded their independence in planning, organizing production, and marketing products. There was a transition to a mixed economy. Along with the state, joint-stock and private property was legalized. An open door policy was proclaimed in foreign economic relations: foreign investment in the Chinese economy was allowed, and free economic zones were created.

The reforms brought both clearly positive results and some problems. In the first half of the 1980s, there was a significant increase in industrial and agricultural production (in 1984, for example, the increase in production amounted to 14.2%). For the first time in many decades, a country with a billion people has solved the food problem and even began to export food. The well-being of the people has improved. At the same time, after the abolition of centralized state administration, the number of intermediary administrative companies increased, and corruption among state officials developed.

The political and ideological foundations of society underwent almost no changes during the reforms. The CPC followed the teachings of Marxism-Leninism and the ideas of Mao Zedong (however, a clause was made in the party charter about the inadmissibility of the personality cult). In 1987, the party congress set the task of moving "along the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics."

The preservation of the former political system caused a critical attitude on the part of some social forces. In the spring and summer of 1989, student demonstrations took place on Tiananmen Square in Beijing demanding democratic changes: the abolition of the CCP's monopoly on power, the introduction of a multi-party system, the observance of human rights, etc.

Armed forces were sent against the demonstrators. Many of those gathered were killed or wounded. The events sparked an international outcry. But inside the country, their consequence was only the resignation of individual party leaders. The next congress of the CPC in 1992 confirmed the task of strengthening the "democratic dictatorship of the people" and the leading role of the party.

In 1997, China returned Hong Kong (leased to Great Britain at the end of the 19th century). Since the late 1970s, negotiations have been periodically resumed on the reunification of Taiwan (which seceded in 1949) with China. During the post-war decades, significant successes in industrial development were achieved here (more on this later). In relation to these territories, the "patriarch of Chinese reforms" Deng Xiaoping put forward the position: "One state - two systems." The line on the diversity of forms of economic life was continued.

Vietnam and Korea

The fate of Vietnam and Korea, divided after the war into states with different social systems, developed in a special way. In both countries, in 1945, communist-led liberation forces proclaimed democratic republics. But the new power was established only in a part of the territory of each of the countries. The southern and central regions of Vietnam were occupied by French troops (before the Japanese occupation, Vietnam was a possession of France, and the former owners wanted to return their property). The war of resistance to the colonialists continued until 1954. As a result of the Geneva Agreement, the country was divided into two parts along the 17th parallel.

Socialist construction unfolded in North Vietnam, with assistance provided by the Soviet Union and other states of the "eastern" bloc. The Workers' Party of Vietnam, headed by Ho Chi Minh, also set the task of achieving the unification of the country. At this time, to the south of the 17th parallel, the Republic of Vietnam emerged with the capital in Saigon, supported by the United States. In 1964, the United States directly intervened in the confrontation between the North and the South, sending its troops to Vietnam.

The Vietnam War ended in 1973 with the defeat of the Saigon regime and US troops. In 1976, the country was unified and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed. The socio-economic system of the South began to be rebuilt along the lines of the North. But the difficulties of post-war reconstruction and the changing international situation sharply raised the question of the course of the country as a whole. In the 1980s, Vietnam began an economic transformation similar to those that had previously unfolded in China.

In Korea, which in 1945 was liberated from the Japanese invaders by Soviet troops from the north, and occupied by the Americans from the south, a line of demarcation was established along the 38th parallel. Two states emerged in two zones of occupation - the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and the Republic of Korea. (Remember when and where else a similar situation took place.)

Unfolded between them in 1950-1953. the war, in which foreign powers also participated, did not give an advantage to either side. Each of the states continued to go its own way. This concerned primarily the economic system. North Korea has established a state-owned centralized economy. In South Korea, a market economy developed on the basis of private ownership of the means of production (however, state regulation of the economy played a significant role here).

Significant differences are characteristic of the socio-political system of the two states. In North Korea, the Juche doctrine, developed by its long-term leader Kim Il Sung, was introduced into life. In particular, it proclaims: “Man is the master of everything”, “Man decides everything”. There were similar declarations in the system of democratic values promoted in South Korean society. However, the authorities in the two countries acquired different forms. In the DPRK, this was the sole power of the "leader" - the president of the country and Secretary General Workers' Party of Korea Kim Il Sung, passed after his death to his son Kim Jong Il. For several decades, South Korea had a military regime that relied on a one-party system and brutally cracked down on any manifestations of opposition. Only in 1987 were the first multi-party elections held. In 1993, a civilian politician, one of the leaders of the opposition, Kim Yong Sam, became president.

South Korea, along with Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, has become one of the new industrial countries. They made themselves known in the 1970s, when they literally broke into world markets with a wide range of their products - from computers and ships to clothing and shoes. The Western press dubbed them "young tigers" or "dragons".

Their path in many ways resembled what had been done earlier in Japan. The economic policy of these states is characterized by the following features: the use of state regulation of the economy; encouraging domestic capital accumulation; introduction of the latest technologies by studying world novelties, acquiring licenses, improving the organization of production; gradual industrialization; all-round promotion of exports.

In the 1980s, several other states of this region went in a similar way - Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand.

India

Nehru course. On August 15, 1947, the flag of independent India was raised over the Red Fort in Delhi. The well-known leader of the liberation movement J. Nehru said in this regard: “We have completely suffered our freedom, our hearts still keep the pain of these sufferings. Nevertheless, the past is over, and now all our thoughts are directed only to the future. But the future will not be easy... Serving India means serving millions of suffering and unfortunate people. It means striving to end centuries of poverty, disease and unequal opportunity ... We must build a new stately home for free India - a home in which all her children can live.

Jawaharlal Nehru became the first and permanent for 17 years (until his death in 1964) head of the government of India. His work was continued by his daughter Indira Gandhi and grandson Rajiv Gandhi, who headed the country's government in the 1960s-1980s. Their policy was based on the massive and influential Indian National Congress party, which was in power for almost the entire period from the beginning of the country's independence, with interruptions in 1977-1979 and 1989-1991.

The main activities of the government of J. Nehru were: reorganization of the country's states along national and ethnic lines; the agrarian reform, as a result of which large-scale landownership was limited, part of the land was transferred to small-land peasants; the creation of a public sector in industry and the introduction of planning in the economy; beginning of industrialization. In domestic policy, emphasis was placed on a combination of the principles of democracy and centralism. An expression of the foreign policy of independent India was its participation in the organization of the Non-Aligned Movement. I. Gandhi, continuing the course of his father, sought to strengthen the economic position of the state, in 1969 the nationalization of large banks was carried out. R. Gandhi considered the main objectives of his policy to be ensuring the national unity and territorial integrity of the country, raising the living standards of the poorest segments of the population, and modernizing production.

In the 1980s, nationalist and separatist movements began to intensify in India. Clashes between Hindus and Muslims, the struggle of the Sikhs for autonomy and then for secession from India, the actions of Tamil separatists in the south of the country led to numerous casualties. I. Gandhi (1984) and R. Gandhi (killed in 1991 during a trip around the country during the election campaign) died at the hands of terrorists.

Afghan experiment

History reference

Development of Afghanistan up to 1978: figures and facts

The main branch of the economy was agriculture. It gave 60% of the gross national product (GNP). The landlords, who made up 2% of the rural population, owned 30% of the land suitable for cultivation, while about 1/3 of the peasant farms had no land at all. Lease was widespread with payment to the landowner up to half of the harvest. Over half of the lands suitable for crops were not cultivated. At the same time, the country imported a significant part of the consumed grain and other foodstuffs. Industry accounted for only 3.3% of GNP. There were just over 200 in the country. industrial enterprises(mainly in the processing of agricultural raw materials), where a total of 44 thousand people worked. Another 67 thousand people were employed in construction.

About 2.5 million people in Afghanistan led a nomadic and semi-nomadic lifestyle (the total population of the country at that time was about 16.5 million people). Pashtuns, who made up more than half of the population, lived in conditions of tribal relations.

In this country, the leaders of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which came to power after the April 1978 uprising, proclaimed the tasks of "establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat" and (over the next five years) "transition to socialism." This course received the support of the Soviet leaders, as it fit into the then dominant concept of socialist orientation.

The rivalry of party factions led at the end of 1979 to a political upheaval. The leader of the PDPA, the head of the Revolutionary Council N. Taraki, was overthrown by his colleague H. Amin and then killed. The Soviet leadership decided to intervene in the course of events. In December 1979, during the storming of the presidential palace by Soviet special forces, Amin died. Soviet military units entered Afghanistan. B. Karmal became the head of the party and the state. The course towards "building socialism" continued.

Shortly after the establishment of the power of the PDPA in Afghanistan, a number of decrees were issued that regulated agrarian relations: first, a decree on reducing the debt of landless and landless peasants, eliminating usury, then on agrarian reform. The latter provided for the confiscation of large land holdings without compensation, the seizure of part of the land from the middle peasants. Landless peasants received land, but without the right to sell it, rent it out, or split it during inheritance. Employment was prohibited. The practical implementation of the aforementioned and other decrees met at first hidden and then open resistance from the peasantry. Many peasants sided with the anti-government Islamic opposition.

Opposition forces began an open struggle against the authorities. Armed detachments of the Mujahideen (fighters for the faith) were created. More than 100 camps have been set up in Pakistan and Iran training centers, where, with the help of Western instructors, military formations were trained. The outbreak of the civil war, in which Soviet troops took part on the side of the government, led to the death of hundreds of thousands of people, the destruction of cities and villages. Unable to cope with the opposition, the government took a number of steps towards reconciliation. In 1987, Najibullah became the new president of the country. In 1988, a number of agreements were concluded on a political settlement in Afghanistan with the participation of Pakistan, the USSR and the USA. In accordance with them, all Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan by February 15, 1989 (in the same year, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR condemned the decision taken in 1979 to send troops to Afghanistan).

Despite the agreements, attempts by the authorities to bring about national reconciliation failed. In 1992, armed detachments of the Mujahideen captured Kabul. Power passed to the Jihad Council ("jihad" - the struggle for faith; Jihad Council - a coalition of Islamic parties). The country was declared an Islamic state. The head of the Islamic Society of Afghanistan, B. Rabbani, began to perform the functions of the country's president. At the same time, the struggle for power continued in the center and locally between the commanders of military formations belonging to different parties and national groups - G. Hekmatyar (representative of a large ethnic group of Pashtuns, he also headed the Islamic Party of Afghanistan), A. Sh. Masud ( Tajik by nationality), R. Dostum (representing the Uzbek population of the north of the country).

In 1995, the Taliban Islamic movement joined the fight. Its organizers are the Taliban (meaning "students") - former students of religious schools who were trained in opposition military camps.

In September 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul and then most of the country.

Following the massacre of political opponents, they demanded from the population strict observance of Sharia law. Women were forbidden to work outside the home and appear on the street without a veil, girls were forbidden to attend schools. It was also forbidden to watch TV shows, movies, listen to music on the radio, etc. For deviation from the prescribed rules, punishment was due according to medieval Islamic laws.

One of the journalists called the events in Afghanistan "a war without end and winners." In the fall of 2001, after the Taliban government refused to hand over to the United States of America W. bin Laden, who had organized terrorist actions in New York and Washington, a military operation was carried out in Afghanistan to overthrow the government. Along with the American troops, the forces of the armed anti-Taliban opposition took part in it. The Taliban have left Kabul. In December 2001, a new interim administration of Afghanistan was formed. In 2004, a new president of the country was elected. However, civil strife continues.

countries of the Arab world. Middle East conflict

A wave of liberation revolutions took place in the Arab countries in the 1950s and 1960s. In some cases, this was the overthrow of monarchical regimes, for example, in Egypt in 1952, Iraq in 1958. A significant role in these revolutions, which had the character of a coup, was played by patriotic army officers. In other cases, revolutions crowned many years of liberation struggle against colonial dependence. This happened in Algeria, where the struggle for independence since 1954 grew into a popular uprising, engulfed all sections of the population, and the National Liberation Front became the organizing force. The proclamation in 1962 of the Algerian People's Democratic Republic meant the victory of the revolution.

The overall outcome of these events was the establishment of parliamentary republics in most Arab countries, the implementation of democratic socio-economic reforms, including agrarian reforms, and the nationalization of part of the industry. The positions of foreign capital were limited. The diversity of interests of individual social groups - entrepreneurs and intellectuals, Islamic clergy, artisans and merchants, workers and peasants - made the political development of these countries very contradictory and changeable. In addition to internal disagreements, there was also the influence of external forces, the desire of the leading world powers to strengthen their positions in this strategically important region. It is not surprising that in a relatively short period of time (30-40 years) in many countries, political regimes and policies have changed two or three times.

So it was in Egypt, where the tenure of three leaders - G. A. Nasser (1954-1970), A. Sadat (1970-1981) and M. X. Mubarak (1981-2011) - was accompanied by significant changes in domestic and foreign policy. In the first years of Nasser's presidency, banks, large-scale industry, transport were nationalized, a public sector was created in the economy, and an agrarian reform was carried out. In the 1960s, the transition to general economic planning began, the political rights of the population were expanded, and equal rights were established for women. The "socialist perspective" of Egypt's development was discussed. But, according to the plan of the Egyptian leaders, this "socialism" had to have a "national character", differ from communism (the class struggle and the idea of the dictatorship of the proletariat were rejected), and follow the principles and norms of Islam. The political parties were dissolved and the Arab socialist union- a special organization that combined the features of the party and a broad social movement, uniting representatives of different social strata. Since the mid-1960s, economic cooperation with the USSR has expanded. One of its most striking manifestations was the construction of the Aswan Dam and a hydroelectric power station on the Nile.

A. Sadat, who led the country after the sudden death of Nasser, abruptly changed course. A policy of curtailing the public sector, encouraging private entrepreneurship, "infitah" ("open doors" for foreign capital) began to be pursued. For 1974-1984 share of the private sector in industrial production increased from 10 to 23%. The landowners were given back part of the lands taken from them earlier. The Arab Socialist Union was dissolved, the multi-party system was restored, although the real power was assigned to one party. In foreign policy there was a rapprochement with the United States. Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords with Israel (1979) led to the isolation of Egypt in the Arab world.

The policy of M. X. Mubarak was distinguished by balance and balance. The strengthening of the position of the national economy was combined with the encouragement of foreign investment (primarily in the manufacturing sector). Striving for internal stability, the President tightened control over the activities of the opposition, especially extremist Muslim organizations. A flexible foreign policy in the 1980s and 1990s allowed Egypt to regain its leadership position in the Arab world. However, at the beginning of the XXI century. among the Egyptians, dissatisfaction with the situation in the country and the rule of Mubarak began to grow.

An example of the variability of political development is also provided by the post-war history of Iraq. After the overthrow of the monarchy (1958), power several times passed from the military regimes to the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (abbreviated name - PASV, in Arabic sound - "Baath"). This party united wide sections of the population - from the intelligentsia and the military to peasants, small artisans, workers - and existed simultaneously in a number of Arab countries. In 1979, S. Hussein came to power in the Baath Party and in the state, who concentrated in his hands the posts of president, head of government, and supreme commander armed forces. S. Hussein's dictatorial domestic policy was combined with aggressive actions against neighboring states. In the 1980s, Iraq waged war against Iran, and in 1990 carried out a military invasion of Kuwait. In 2003, S. Hussein's regime was overthrown as a result of a military operation by US and British troops.

AT Algiers for several decades, a course was pursued to "build socialism within the framework of national values and Islam." Banks, large-scale industry, transport, power plants passed into the hands of the state. At the same time, the positions of medium and small private capital remained. A significant part of the land was nationalized and transferred to peasant cooperatives. The inefficiency of the state economy was partly offset by oil revenues. But in the 1980s, the situation in the country deteriorated, and food problems arose. This caused protests and speeches by the opposition forces. In November 1988, the ruling National Liberation Front party was transformed into a public organization with the same name. In accordance with the new constitution, the creation of political parties of various persuasions - from socialist and democratic to fundamentalist (advocating a return to the "original norms of Islam"). In 1990-1991 The Islamic Salvation Front, a fundamentalist party, won the majority of votes in local and later parliamentary elections. To prevent her coming to power, the country's leadership canceled the next round of voting. In subsequent years, the situation in the country remained tense.

In the first decades of the XXI century. internal contradictions in the countries of the Arab world led to new series turning events. Thus, at the beginning of 2011, political crises occurred in Tunisia and Egypt, culminating in the resignations of the presidents who had led these countries for several decades. And the opposition protests against the rule of M. Gaddafi in Libya turned into an armed confrontation. In March of this year, an international military operation began in Libya with rocket attacks on the country's capital.

On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted a decision on the division of Palestine, liberated from British rule, and the formation of two independent states on its territory - Jewish and Arab.

On May 14, 1948, the Jewish state of Israel was proclaimed. The Arabs of Palestine, with the support of a number of Arab countries, immediately declared war on the new state. Arab-Israeli War 1948-1949 ended with the defeat of the Arab forces. Israel seized part of the territory intended for the Palestinian Arab state. About 900 thousand Arabs were forced to leave their land and move to other countries. The first clash was followed by a third-century series of wars between Israel and the Arab countries (see map).

Dates and events

May 1948- July 1949 - the first Arab-Israeli war (the troops of Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, etc. participated in the attack on Israel). October 1956 - Israel's participation, together with Great Britain and France, in the aggression against Egypt.
June 1967- Six Day War. The capture by Israel of territories belonging to Syria, Egypt, Jordan.
May - June 1970, September 1972 - the invasion of Israeli troops into the territory of Lebanon, where the units of the Palestinian resistance movement were hiding, the repulse of the Lebanese and Syrian troops.
October 1973- Arab-Israeli war over Arab territories previously captured by Israel.
June 1982- the invasion of Israeli troops in Lebanon, the capture of the western part of the capital of Beirut.

In the early 1980s, Israel controlled an area 7.5 times larger than that allocated to the Jewish state in 1947. Jewish settlements began to be founded on the occupied lands. In response, in 1987, the "intifada" began - the uprising of the Arabs. In 1988, the National Council of Palestine, convened in Algiers, announced the creation of an Arab State of Palestine. The difficulty of the situation lay in the fact that each of the parties substantiated its claims to the territory of Palestine by the so-called "historical right", stating that at some time in the past it belonged to all this territory.

The first attempt to stop the conflict was an agreement signed by the leaders of Israel and Egypt, M. Begin and A. Sadat, mediated by the United States in 1979 at Camp David.

It was negatively received both in the Arab world and by extremist forces in Israel. Subsequently, one of the reasons for the assassination of A. Sadat by Islamic militants was that he "betrayed the Arab cause" by signing these agreements.

Only in the mid-1990s did negotiations between Israeli Prime Ministers I. Rabin and Sh. Peres, on the one hand, and the head of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Yasser Arafat, on the other hand, lead to the conclusion of agreements on a Middle East settlement. However, the negotiation process is constantly threatened by the terrorist attacks of Islamic militants and opposition to the negotiations by part of the Israeli society.

Tropical and South African countries

Most of the peoples of Tropical and South Africa gained independence in the 1960s and 1970s. Their subsequent development is characterized by a particularly frequent change of political regimes and governments. The military and supporters of Marxism replaced each other in power, the republics became empires, single-party systems, then multi-party systems were introduced, etc. The political confrontation was aggravated by the rivalry of tribal groups and the actions of separatists. How this happened in specific circumstances can be seen in the example of Angola.

Since the mid-1950s, three currents have developed in the national liberation movement of Angola.

The People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) is a mass revolutionary-democratic organization that advocated the proclamation of Angola as an independent state, the establishment of a democratic regime, and a general amnesty. The organization saw the path to liberation in armed struggle. By 1973, MPLA units controlled a third of the country's territory.

Union of the population of the North of Angola, later renamed the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). This organization, formed along national, ethnic and religious lines, pursued its own course.

The National Union for the Complete Independence of Angola (UNITA), created in 1966, based on the peoples of the south of the country. UNITA opposed the MPLA, while using the support of South Africa.

After the Portuguese government concluded an agreement with all three organizations in 1975 on the procedure for the transition of Angola to independence, a struggle for power unfolded between them. The advantage turned out to be on the side of the MPLA, which formed a government that adhered to a socialist orientation and received the support of the USSR. Armed detachments of UNITA and FNLA began to fight against the government, relying on the help of the United States and South Africa. Cuban units took part in the war on the side of government forces. Only in 1989 was a truce in hostilities reached. The Cuban military contingent left Angola. But the task of a political settlement remained relevant.

special political structure continued until the end of the 1980s Republic of South Africa. This is a multiracial state in which, along with the indigenous African population, the descendants of white European settlers and immigrants from Asia live.

History reference

In 1948, the Nationalist Party (the party of the white minority that ruled the country) came to power in the country. She proclaimed the policy of anapmxeuda (in Afrikaans, this word means "separation, separate existence, in modern literature the term apartheid is used"). In 1950, the country adopted:

law on settlement by groups (the government received the right to declare any part of the country the area of settlement of any one ethnic group); on the basis of this law, from the mid-1950s, the eviction of Africans from large cities began;
the law on population registration (every resident from the age of 16 was required to constantly carry an identity card indicating his ethnic group: white, colored, black, Asian);
law on the suppression of communism, according to which any doctrine or plan was considered communist, "the purpose of which is to effect any changes within the country in the field of political, industrial, social, economic by organizing unrest and unrest, by illegal or similar actions, as well as by threats actions and the assumption of these threats ... ".

In 1959, a law was passed on the development of “Bantu self-government” (Bantu are the indigenous people of South Africa). It was based on the idea of "national fatherlands" (bantustans), where Africans were supposed to live. Outside the bantustans, they were deprived of all rights.

Racial composition of the population of South Africa (1976)

The total population is 31.3 million people, including: blacks - 22.8; white - 4.8; colored - 2.8; immigrants from Asia (Indians) - 0.9 million people.

South Africa, which has the richest natural resources - deposits of gold, diamonds, coal and rare metals - became an industrialized state in the post-war period. But the policy of apartheid, merciless oppression and exploitation of the black and colored population caused condemnation from the international community and the introduction of economic sanctions against South Africa. In the country itself, a powerful liberation movement of the black population arose, in which several organizations stood out. The most influential were the African National Congress (founded at the beginning of the 20th century) and the Inkata organization (it included representatives of the Zulu people). In 1983, the United Democratic Front of all forces opposed to the apartheid regime was created.

A major role in weakening and then abolishing the apartheid system, democratization political life played by F. de Klerk, who headed the Nationalist Party in 1989 and became president of the country. On his initiative, racial restrictions were lifted, negotiations began with the leaders of the black population movement. Reaching agreements was not an easy task, not only because of the differences between the government and the ANC, but also because of the clashes between the supporters of the ANC and Inkata. It was about overcoming both racial and tribal strife.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

Processes of development and modernization in the states of Latin America in the XX century. went through three main unequal stages.
The first stage covers the first third of the 20th century. The development of the countries of the Latin American region during this period took place mainly on the basis and within the framework of traditional economic and social structures, the economy of agrarian and raw material export orientation, in the conditions of their peripheral, dependent position in relation to the leading industrial powers.
The second stage - from the 30s to the mid-70s. 20th century - the longest, was marked by complex renovation processes. At this time, against the background of the crisis of traditional structures, their modernization began through the active intervention of the state in the economy and social relations, the implementation industrial , agrarian and social reforms. This period is characterized by the predominance and interaction of revolutionary and reformist tendencies in the development and modernization of society.
The third stage is the last quarter of the 20th century. At this time, the neo-liberal version of modernization came to the fore, with contradictory consequences.
Many topical issues of the region were not resolved by the end of the century. The uneven, often ambiguous nature of the changes led to the fact that with the solution or mitigation of some problems, others aggravated, new ones were added. For the 20th century not only Latin America, but the whole world has changed. Leading industrial countries at the turn of the XXI century. have already become post-industrial powers. Despite the progress achieved, the Latin American republics remained noticeably lagging behind the states that were advanced in economic, scientific and technical relations, dependent, still peripheral position in the world economy, and the low standard of living of the majority of the population.
Insufficient material base, lack of capital, the burden of large and constantly growing external debt, the use of the resources of the countries of the region in the interests of the leading centers of the emerging global economy did not allow the Latin American republics at the end of the 20th century. withstand the accelerated neo-liberal modernizing policy without significant negative consequences. As a result of such a policy, imposed on the states of the region from outside, the gap between the modernized sectors of production and the traditional economy, with which the majority of the population was connected and which, in the context of liberalization and transnationalization, has widened. economic life was in a state of crisis. The national economy was increasingly under the control of transnational capital, which seriously limited the sovereignty of the Latin American republics. Neoliberal restructuring has led to a decline in living standards and the impoverishment of the broad masses of the population, to an increase in unemployment and social contrasts. Corruption, drug trafficking, and terrorism have become serious destabilizing factors. The mood of rejection of economic reforms carried out at such a high price, distrust of politicians, traditional parties and politics in general, and demands for a correction in the course of modernization have intensified.
The main task of the socio-political forces of Latin America at the beginning of the XXI century. there is a search and implementation of such development options that would meet local conditions and would allow combining the renewal of the economy with the interests of the majority of society, with the solution of urgent social problems, combine the integration of the countries of the region into the global world community with the preservation of the originality, their own civilizational foundations of the peoples of Latin America.

Results of the Second World War for the countries of Asia and Africa. The impact of the Cold War on the development of the region. Acceleration of the process of decolonization, its internal and external factors: democratic changes in the world, regrouping of forces in Western countries, socio-economic changes in the mother countries, the role of the UN, the position of the USSR, socio-economic shifts in the colonial and dependent countries, the impact of national liberation movements. The collapse of colonial empires. Formation of new independent states: their role in the region, relations with the former mother countries.

The problem of modernization of Asian and African countries in conditions of political independence. Western, Marxist and Third World concepts of the modernization of traditional societies. Asian and African countries after the end of the Cold War. The new nature of relations along the "North - South" line. Problems of development of the countries of the region and the search for answers to the challenges of our time. The importance of demographic and socio-economic factors in determining development prospects. The role of the UN, IMF, IBRD and other organizations in shaping a new development strategy for the countries of the region.

Japan

Japanese way out of totalitarianism. The role of the American occupation regime in reforming the country. Reforms, demilitarization and demonopolization. 1947 constitution

Democratic reforms and transformation of the structure of the ruling elite, Creation of a system of state regulation of the economy. Party building. Creation of the "political system of 1955". San Francisco Treaty. Restoration of Japanese sovereignty. Soviet-Japanese Declaration of 1956

Factors, the main features of the period " economic miracle". Specificity economic system. The role of corporate associations keiretsu and kigyo shudin. The transformation of Japan into an "economic superpower". Normalization of relations with the countries of Southeast Asia. Restructuring of the Japanese economy in 1970-1980 The policy of economic liberalization and reduction of state regulation. The course for the export of capital, technology and production. Japanese economy in the context of globalization.

Evolution of the party-political structure, political crises of 1970-1990. The crisis of the political monopoly of the Liberal Democratic Party. Activation of party building in the 1990s and early 2000s. The system of party-political pluralism in modern conditions.

Japanese policy towards the USA, Western Europe, China, USSR/Russia, Southeast Asian countries in the second half of the 20th century. The problem of the Kuril Islands. Japan in the face of modern challenges.

China

Civil War 1946-1949 Crisis and collapse of the Kuomintang regime. Formation of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The concept of "new democracy". Soviet-Chinese agreement. Socio-economic reforms in the early 1950s First five years. Industrialization, forced cooperation. 8th CCP Congress and building socialism. Theoretical searches of Maoism and the personality cult of Mao Zedong. The policy of the "three red banners", its results. Lushan Plenum of the CPC Central Committee and the defeat of General Peng Dehuai's group. Formation of a new opposition to Maoism. The course towards "streamlining" the economy, strengthening the position of pragmatists in the leadership of the PRC.

"The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution" as an attempt to revenge Maoism. The role of Mao Zedong and left-wing radicals in establishing a military-bureaucratic dictatorship. Struggle in the party-state leadership: groupings, their aspirations and leaders. Bankruptcy of the Maoist variant of modernization. Results and consequences of the "cultural revolution". The defeat of the "gang of four", the formation of a new course.

Deng Xiaoping and the Four Modernizations Program. The beginning of the stage of reforms: periods, their content and significance. Reducing the directive

planning and decentralization of management, permission for private enterprise, decollectivization of agriculture. Attraction of foreign capital, special economic zones.

Attempts to democratize the political system. Constitutions of 1978 and 1982 Internal political struggle on issues of democratization, liberalization of the economy. Exacerbation of social problems. Events of 1989, their impact on the development of reforms.

The victory of the supporters of reforms. The course towards the liberalization of prices, foreign trade, tax reform, currency regulation. Programs for modernizing the public sector and building a "Xiaokang society". Formation of a new composition of the top party-state leadership. The problem of "overheating" of the economy, the policy of "soft landing". Restoration of Chinese jurisdiction over Hong Kong and Macau. The concept of "one country, two systems". New role China in the international arena. China's policy towards the USA, Japan, Western Europe, the USSR/Russia, Asian countries.

Korea

Korea after liberation. decolonization processes. Formation of political parties and social movements The problem of the formation of a single state. The policy of the world powers towards Korea. Formation of two Korean states. Korean War 1950-1953 and its consequences.

Democratic People's Republic of Korea. The main milestones in the development of the DPRK in the era of Kim Il Sung (1948-1994). Industrialization, its specificity. Collectivization. internal political struggle. Juche ideology.

The deepening crisis of the North Korean regime. Economic depression. Deindustrialization. The reign of Kim Jong Il. The specifics of the political system. Militarization of public life.

The Republic of Korea. The specifics of the formation of the Republic of Korea during the First Republic. Constitution of 1948 Economic policy. Authoritarianism of Syngman Lee.

period of military rule. Economy and politics in the period from the Second to the Fifth Republic. Economic reforms Park Chung Hee. Constitutions of 1972 and 1980

Korea during the Sixth Republic. Liberalization of public and political life. Economic achievements. Foreign policy.

Most of the countries of Asia and Africa at the beginning of the 20th century continued to exist in the status of colonies of industrial states. The metropolitan countries, despite the capitalist era, continued to exploit the colonial lands by classical feudal methods: the forced export of precious metals, the creation of a slave trade system, and high taxation in kind and money.

Anti-colonial movements

It was during this period that active resistance to liberation movements began in the colonial countries. The main goal of their activities was the expulsion of monopolists and the change in the existing barbarian predatory order. The participants in the anti-colonial movements were the most vulnerable sections of the population - the peasantry, workers and clergy.

The local elite actively cooperated with the authorities of the monopolies and did not feel any particular infringement on their rights and freedoms. Members of the anti-colonial movements were in no hurry to enter into wars of liberation, as they understood that in the face of the enemy they had powerful states with a strong army and technical base that the countries of Asia and Africa did not possess.

The liberation from the power of the metropolises came from the most unexpected side on the territory of Europe, the First World War was unleashed, which led to the fall of most powerful empires.

After the end of World War II, the states of Asia and Africa entered a period of significant economic and cultural upsurge. For the first time, the population of these regions became acquainted with medicines that the metropolitan countries had not previously considered necessary to provide to the colonial territories.

Industry was significantly modernized, primary educational institutions were opened, thanks to which the illiteracy of the population was eliminated. However, these states could not fully support the European path of development.

Development of Latin American countries

Compared with the countries of Asia and Africa, the states of Latin America had more serious prerequisites for economic and technological development. Absolutely all Latin American countries freed themselves from the power of the metropolitan countries in the 19th century and acquired state independence during the same period.

The first half of the 20th century was marked by an industrial upsurge; new factories and factories were built, agriculture was intensively developed, new railways(the total length of the Chilean railway was several times the length of the Chinese tracks).

Latin America has become the world's leading exporter of plant and animal products. Prior to the outbreak of World War II, the region enjoyed logistical support from the United States and European states.

But, despite the apparent growth of the economy, the development of Latin American countries was overshadowed by the power of dictatorial regimes that existed in the region until the end of the 20th century. In many countries in the 1930s a military totalitarian dictatorship was established.

After the fall of the Third Reich, the states of Latin America became a haven for German and Italian fascists. Socio-political stability was undermined by regular military coups d'etat, as a result of which one tyrant replaced another. liberal democratic government Latin America was installed only in 1991.

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Modern history of Asia and Africa. XX century. 1945–2000 Part 2

Chapter 1. The main trends in the development of Asian and African countries in the second half of the 20th century

§ 1. Political and ideological development of the countries and peoples of the East

The development of statehood and the formation of modern political structures in the countries of the East

The development of statehood and the formation of modern political structures in the countries of the East have fundamental differences from Western models. In turn, these differences were largely due to the diverse nature of the development of capitalist relations in the metropolises (West) and dependent countries (East).

First, in the East, the evolution of the traditional mode of production was interrupted due to the violent impact of an external factor: direct - foreign conquest (classic colonial option) or indirect - the threat of conquest, limitation of sovereignty and economic expansion (semi-colonial sub-option). As a result, the traditional mode of production and way of life were gradually pushed to the periphery of society, while part of it was forcibly involved in synthesis (while being qualitatively modified) with the foreign capitalist way of life. At the same time, the synthesis arose not as a result of intrastate evolution, but as an interstate clash and the forced orientation of the mode of production in a bourgeois direction by capitalist elements of foreign origin.

It cannot, of course, be argued that in the West the factor of foreign violence did not play any role in the transformation and synthesis of social structures. On the contrary, one can often note the decisive role of military conquest in the genesis of feudalism, or the role of the Napoleonic wars and the French occupation in accelerating the capitalist development of certain European territories. At the same time, the peculiarity of the colonial conquests was that they led to the emergence of such world-historical phenomena as the colonial system, colonial synthesis, and the division of labor associated with the latter on a global scale. As a result, communication and interaction of Eastern societies was blocked in their natural regional and cultural environment, which had its own centers and peripheries, centers of development and stagnation within the pre-bourgeois relations that existed there.

Secondly, the colonial synthesis was distinguished by the fact that it began from above, that is, from the superstructural political level of society. The colonial administration or local authorities, entangled in networks of unequal treaties, not only acted as the first manifestations of synthesis, but were also the main tools and stimulators in the implementation of synthesis processes in other components of public life: in economic and social life, in the field of culture and ideology.

Thirdly, the colonial synthesis is distinguished by its particular diversity and versatility. If in the countries of Western Europe the transition from feudal society, fragmentation and civil strife to absolutist centralization was accompanied by the formation of more or less homogeneous states in terms of national and ethnic composition and level of socio-economic development, then in most countries of the East during the period of their involvement in the colonial system, the picture was different. . On the one hand, there were significant differences between the countries of the East in their level of development. On the other hand, the boundaries of specific colonial possessions also covered territories with an unequal level of development (from the primitive communal system to late feudalism) and significant ethnic differences. To this should be added the originality that distinguished the policy of the colonial administrations, as well as the forms of foreign entrepreneurship of various metropolitan countries. All this led to the diversity of Eastern societies and ways of forming statehood in the postcolonial period.

Fourthly, the genesis of the colonial synthesis, as well as all subsequent significant transformations of it up to independence, were determined primarily by the metropolis. If the transition of the mother countries to the phase of industrial capitalism caused the need for the final formulation of the colonial synthesis with its specific form of division of labor between the colony and the mother country, then the transition to the stage of monopoly capitalism and the export of capital gave rise to direct industrial investment in the colonies, i.e. modern forms of entrepreneurship (synthesis of foreign entrepreneurship and local labor force), national entrepreneurship, petty-bourgeois forms of commercial and industrial activity, national intelligentsia, modern forms of socio-political movements and similar phenomena that in one way or another affect political and state formation.

All these features of the formation and development of the synthesis had as their final consequence the formation of a combined or multistructural society, consisting of many components. AT different countries In the East, the ratio of these components of a combined society on the eve of independence was very different, which was also important for the features of the future state and political development of this or that Eastern society.

National-state integration in the countries of the East

The achievement of political independence by the countries of the East has become an important historical milestone in their development. However, contrary to the hopes of many national leaders and the aspirations of the masses, political independence in itself did not, and could not become, a panacea for centuries of backwardness and all other ills associated with the colonial past.

Political national liberation revolutions and the establishment of national statehood were decisive prerequisites, without which it was impossible even to begin to solve the problem of overcoming the combined nature of societies in the modern East. But at the same time, it must be borne in mind that neither a political revolution nor the establishment of national statehood could by themselves eliminate the combined nature of society, that the solution of this problem constitutes the content of an entire historical epoch.

What is a combined society? This is a society characterized by a very weak internal integration of those components of its structure that are formationally or typologically heterogeneous. The relationship between these components is ensured only by: a) forces external to them themselves (a relatively autonomous political superstructure or political violence), b) the commonality of the territorial-geographical factor - a joint location within one state, and c) insignificant or secondary social ties, t i.e. those whose rupture does not violate their inner essence(for example, if the traditional and foreign sectors are very loosely linked and coexist as autonomous modes, then the termination of their private and casual ties does not lead to the closure of the foreign enterprise, nor to the destruction of the internal life of the traditional sector).

At the moment of gaining independence, the binding factor of colonial political violence is replaced by the factor of moral and political cohesion around the national leadership, which focuses the forces of a multiform society that are heterogeneous in their essence, but united in their external anti-colonial aspirations. This cohesion may act by inertia for some time after independence is achieved, but it is by no means unlimited. Centrifugal tendencies, having their origins in the heterogeneity and diversity of the components of a combined society, come to life during the period of its independent development. This prompts national governments to think about developing a strategy of national-state integration, the purpose of which would be to turn the combined society into a nationally holistic one, i.e. into such a social organism where all its components are homogeneous in socio-economic and socio-political terms, and all the main connections between them are significant.

The history of a number of countries of the East has shown that there were national leaders and governments who tried to solve this problem (and for one thing, the problem of their own legitimacy) only with the help of a system of legislative, ideological and propaganda measures. The national leadership of almost all the countries of the East, which developed along the path of capitalism, sought to create (on their own initiative or at the prompting of the former metropolis) a modern bourgeois state. A nationally integrated society, in fact, was declared, and this myth was supported by noisy propaganda campaigns. However, a real, diverse society required concrete evidence of the ability of their governments to express multifaceted interests. But just as before in almost all European countries after the first bourgeois revolutions, the modern countries of the East from the first day of independence faced the phenomenon of inconsistency of a real multi-structural society with the framework of an officially proclaimed national-state community. To this day, this is one of the main problems of the vast majority of the countries of the East.

The formation of the modern bourgeois states of the West was a logical result of the natural-historical process of the birth and development of the elements of the future bourgeois civil society still in the depths of feudalism and its further evolution under the conditions of the first phase of capitalism. As a result, nationally integrated civil societies were formed: at a certain stage, the framework of real and civil societies generally coincided, when the bulk of real society realized itself primarily as citizens of a given state, while belonging to narrower and local societies and groups receded into second plan, and in some cases disappeared altogether. As a result, between civil society and its natural result - the bourgeois state - there is a correspondence, relative functional harmony, when the existing contradictions are resolved in everyday life on the basis of consensus.

Things were different in the East, where traditionally the state was everything, and civil society was in an amorphous state. Modern bourgeois states in the countries of the East (regardless of their specific forms) appeared, although not from the sky, but still from above - either as a result of political national liberation revolutions, or thanks to a deal between the former metropolises and the top of the ruling classes. Immediately after achieving independence, these states found themselves on a completely inadequate basis of a combined real society, in which, if they contained separate, mostly potential, elements of a modern, bourgeois, civil society, then in most cases they were not enough to ensure the stability, strength and effective operation of a truly modern state. Legislatively affirmed bourgeois statehood in the liberated countries of the East could not be anything other than a frame borrowed from outside - a form without a corresponding essential content.

The fact is that in the social structure of the modern countries of the East, there are essentially two different types of the traditional. This is a colonial synthesis and archaic, that is, pre-colonial, primordially traditional. It would seem that the structure of the colonial synthesis is not entirely legitimate to refer to the traditional. After all, the colonial synthesis is the result of the penetration of foreign capital, i.e., bourgeois relations, and the corresponding transformation of a certain part of the local elements. Therefore, it would be “more logical” to consider it as modern. This, obviously, would be the case if the process of influence of the metropolis on the colonies and semi-colonies was reduced only to ordinary Westernization, i.e., to bourgeois modernization along the Western model. But Westernization in this case was unusual and carried out in a colonial form. In other words, this colonial model of Westernization was stimulated and generally associated entirely with foreign exploitation. That is why, from the moment the national way of life appeared, the colonial synthesis, despite its internal bourgeois orientation, could no longer be considered as "modern", and as the latter it was now opposed by the national capitalist way. And it was precisely to clear the paths for the development of this modern society that, in particular, anti-colonial liberation political revolutions were required.

The second archaic type includes all those social structures that were traditional even before the formation of the colonial synthesis. Basically, they survived until independence, since the mother countries could not (and often did not want to) grind through all the traditional ways of colonies and semi-colonies.

Therefore, the official state has, as they say, to fight on two fronts: a) against the traditional one, from which it directly grew, i.e., the colonial synthesis; b) against the archaic traditional, which has been preserved since pre-colonial times and which only under the pressure of a changing situation is involved in the processes of modernization.

Thus, the ultimate goal is the same - bourgeois modernization and national-state integration, but the processes of synthesis, with the help of which this goal is achieved, proceed in two different channels. All this determines the especially significant role of the state in the modern countries of the East. It is called upon to play an active formative or creative role on almost all levels of society in the economic basis (including as a direct agent of production relations, performing the functions of organizing and managing production), in the national-ethnic situation, in the social structure, in the entire system of political superstructure. (including in terms of completing and rebuilding its own civilian and military-police apparatus).

All this active and versatile activity is necessary to overcome the forces of multiformity and to include the population living within the framework of archaic traditional sectors and traditional colonial synthesis, within the framework of modern civil society. Moreover, national governments and leaders have tried and are trying to compensate for the lack of a universal, bonding and cementing civil life by political life introduced from above.

In general, the process of the formation of civil society in the modern countries of the East and its relationship with the official state after independence is significantly different than it was in the corresponding period in Western Europe. There, the formation of civil society became a prerequisite for the formation of a modern bourgeois state. The process of its formation began in the phase of absolutism, therefore, immediately after the political bourgeois revolutions, the modern state and the subsequent evolution of its historical forms from traditional authoritarianism to modern bourgeois democracy were basically determined by the level of development of this civil society, the processes of consolidation, etc.

Thus, in Western Europe the process of development proceeded by and large from the bottom, from the economic base and social structure to the political superstructure. In the absolute majority of the countries of the East, the national capitalist structure by the time independence was achieved was unusually weak in order to be able to independently fulfill the system-forming function. Therefore, immediately after independence, the initiative, stimulating and guiding role in the development of civil society belonged to the superstructural elements, primarily the elite strata of the state apparatus (the core of the modern state). In other words, the process of formation of civil society here began mainly from above. And only as civil society strengthened and took shape, could it begin to exert ever-increasing pressure on the official state, forcing it to further evolution (a process that is often accompanied by crisis and revolutionary situations).

From what has been said, it follows that in the countries of the East, the modern state borrowed from the West - the parliamentary republic - did not have an adequate economic and social base, a national-ethnic structure, and even sufficient elements for constructing its own (i.e. state) apparatus. Where such a state was created, and formally it is the majority of the colonial countries of the East (with the exception of authoritarian, socialist and monarchical ones), the inconsistency of the official form of this state with the society over which it towered was very soon revealed.

The formation of new forms of statehood in such conditions did not mean the establishment of its universal and real control over the traditional sectors of society. Huge layers of traditional structures continue to live their own, relatively closed life and are guided in it by other value orientations than those prescribed by the official state. The loyalty of social groups of this kind has long been oriented towards either colonial synthesis or archaic ways of life. This explains the numerous oppositional and even separatist movements in many developing countries that arise there immediately after achieving independence. At the core of these movements lie either colonial synthesis or archaic traditional ways.

Neo-colonialism is trying to use these movements for its own selfish interests. In practice, these two opposition currents can act separately, together, or even against each other. In the latter case, some traditionalist movements may carry an anti-colonialist charge and temporarily block with modern national social forces.

Colonial legacy in post-independence state structures

After the independence of the young states, the established colonial division of labor could not be destroyed in one fell swoop by the subjective will of anyone. But it could be eliminated during a rather long transitional period (on the path of capitalist or socialist orientation) through the transformational activities of the government and the whole society. This activity in countries following the capitalist path of development began, first of all, with the process of further modification of the colonial synthesis.

The main change that introduces independence into the processes of modification of synthesis is the elimination of the colonial administration as an integral part of the political superstructure of the metropolis, i.e., the elimination political mechanism violent orientation of political development in an anti-national direction. Instead, a new mechanism appears - national statehood. The former "binational" (metropolis - colony) statehood was torn apart and the colonial synthesis was no longer within a single statehood of the imperial type, but between two types of politically independent states. This political act already laid the foundation for the modification of the traditional colonial synthesis into neocolonial.

At the first stages of independent bourgeois development, important changes took place related to the establishment of national statehood. They consisted in regrouping the structural components of the combined society. The national way of life (state and private) acquired a dominant position. Of course, during this period, it was not yet possible for most developing countries to completely abandon the attraction of foreign capital. However, with the strengthening of the national capitalist structure and the general change in the balance of power, a process of forced restructuring of foreign capital took place. He increasingly agreed to more favorable conditions for functioning for young nation-states: the elimination of the colonial system, the creation of mixed companies with the predominant participation of national capital, the introduction of more progressive contract forms, etc. He was increasingly forced to reckon with the national development strategy of the countries concerned .

In many respects, the situation was similar in the sphere of political (as well as cultural) nationalization. However, it was possible to create, for example, a “national” state apparatus or an army, but if the key posts or the real right to make the most important decisions still belonged to foreign advisers and persons of a pro-imperialist orientation, then in this case one can hardly speak of the completion of the nationalization of the state apparatus. Or another example. If the entire work of the "national" news agency was based on Western sources of information and the corresponding methods of processing and presenting it, then, obviously, one cannot speak of the complete nationalization of the information service. For all the originality of the question, what has been said above in many aspects also applied to the Christian religion introduced by the colonialists. The process of its nationalization included not only the nationalization of confessional personnel, language, and liturgy, but above all, a meaningful reorientation of all church activities from serving the interests of the former colonial synthesis to protecting national-state interests.

Thus, the essential elements of the colonial synthesis persisted and manifested themselves even across new national frontiers. However, independence gave rise to a long process of modification and transformation of the synthesis, and, ultimately, elimination through an element-by-element change in its structure. This process can be called the withering away of colonialism or, which is the same thing, the elimination of neo-colonialism.