What kind of economic system is typical. Economic systems, their main types

Types of eq. systems	produce?	How to produce?	For whom to produce?	The role of the state		property
Traditional	Everything is based on tradition				no state		Public
Command	public goods	State decides	For all consumers	Defining		State property
Market	Consumer goods	The manufacturer decides for the highest profit	For specific consumers	Security (army, police)		Private property
mixed	Public and consumer goods	Decides by state for public goods and manufacturer for consumer goods	For everyone and for specific consumers	security; antimonopoly; Legislative and judicial redistribution of income; Ensuring the production of public goods; Stabilization and stimulation of growth; limited regulation of markets; informational.		State and private property

Subject and method of economic theory.

To study economic theory, it is necessary to know its genesis, i.e. origin, emergence, process of formation and formation as an independent science.

Economics is considered one of the most ancient sciences. Thus, already primitive people possessed the basics of economic knowledge, had certain ideas about housekeeping, about the relations that develop between members of the community in the process and as a result of obtaining and distributing benefits, exchanging products. However, these ideas have not yet been singled out as an independent field of knowledge, they existed within the framework of an undifferentiated social consciousness, and were an integral part of the worldview of people in general.

In the process of formation and development of economic science, several major periods can be distinguished.

The origin of economic thought refers to the pre-industrial period of history, covering the ancient civilizations of the East, Greece, the Roman Empire (IV millennium BC - V century AD). At that time, economic thought was characterized by its non-differentiation from religious ideology and political and legal views. The economic views recorded in written sources relate mainly to the problems of functioning and rational organization of the economy and labor, the system of state administration, and responsibility for property. These are socio-philosophical treatises of individuals, codes of laws, treaties, texts of the Old and New Testaments, later - the Koran.

Further development of economic thought took place in the Middle Ages, which also covers a large historical period (in Western Europe - from the 5th century to the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries, in Russia - from the 9th century to the reform of 1861). By the way, in a number of countries in Asia and Africa, feudal relations continued into the 20th century. At this time, views are being formed on the problems of estate status, land ownership and income distribution, corporate-type relations (neighboring communities, city communes, craft workshops, merchant guilds, monastic and knightly orders, etc.). Political power was in the hands of secular and church feudal lords (owners of the land), traditions played a huge role and the religious worldview dominated. Another feature is the increased interest in commodity-money relations. The main theorists were scholastics, economic ideas were also drawn from heresies (for example, equality, the obligation to work, condemnation of the sale of indulgences), the demands of peasant uprisings, and early utopian socialist ideas.

Under the conditions of the disintegration of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations, the first school of political economy arose - mercantilism (mid-15th century - mid-eighteenth century). It was from this period (XVI-XVII centuries) that one can speak of economic theory as an independent science, since the first system of economic views appeared, in the center of which was the problem of wealth.

Mercantilists (T. Man in England, A. Montchretien and J. B. Colbert in France) believed that income is created in the sphere of circulation, and the nation's wealth lies in money - gold and silver. Therefore, they set the goal of the economic policy of the state - by all means to attract these metals to the country. The source of wealth, in their opinion, was foreign trade.

Mercantilism arose on the eve and during the great geographical discoveries, the capture of colonies, the growth of the influence of cities and was divided into early and late (the first - until the middle of the 16th century, the second - the middle of the 17th - the beginning of the 18th century). The main thing in early mercantilism was the theory of the balance of money, aimed at increasing gold and silver in the country by legislative means. In order to keep the money, it was forbidden to export it abroad, all the money received from the sale, foreign merchants were required to spend on the purchase of local goods. Late mercantilism is characterized by a system of active trade balance, which was provided by exporting national goods abroad. At the same time, the demand was put forward: to export more than to import.

The heyday of mercantilism in Russia fell on the time of Peter I, and it had its own specifics, reflected in the views of Ivan Pososhkov, Yuri Krizhanich, Afanasy Ordin-Nashchokin. They, unlike foreign representatives, paid special attention to the development of industry, agriculture, i.e. were not limited to the rationalization of foreign trade.

Mercantilism for its time was a progressive phenomenon, since it contributed to the development of productive forces, the formation of the capitalist mode of production. However, by analyzing only the process of circulation, the mercantilists were unable to reveal the underlying patterns of economic development.

The subject of economic theory. Evolution of ideas about the subject of economic theory.

At the present stage in society there are a variety of ideas about the economy. First of all, economics is a word of ancient Greek origin, literally meaning "housekeeping" (oikos - house, household; nomos - doctrine, law). For the first time it is found among the Greek thinkers Xenophon and Aristotle, who so denoted the doctrine of housekeeping.

Today the term "economy" used in three ways. It's called like this:

the entire national economy of the country or part of it, including industries and certain types of material production and non-production spheres (industry, agriculture, transport, construction, housing and communal services, etc.).

the totality of people's relations in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material and non-material goods and services necessary to meet the diverse needs corresponding to a given level of development of the productive forces.

a scientific discipline that studies the system of economic activity of people, the principles and laws of its organization (economic theory), as well as its individual constituent elements (for example, labor economics, economics of management, economics of industries). In this sense, the economy is an expression in the system of categories, concepts and laws of interrelations and processes of the objective world. The focus is on the problem of people using limited resources to produce goods and services in order to meet their needs.

Any science must have its own subject(what is researched) and research method (how researched).

The subject of economic theory as a science in the modern sense was not immediately determined and was the result of a long historical development. In the course of the development of economic theory as a science, views on its subject also changed, and here, with a certain degree of conventionality, three main stages (periods) can be distinguished:

economy - as a set of knowledge on the organization of the economy;

political economy - as a reflection of the emergence of systematic knowledge about the essence, goals and objectives of the economic system;

economics - as a modern stage in the evolutionary development of economic science, taking into account changes in research methodology and approaches to the analysis of economic processes and phenomena. The focus is on the problems of people using limited resources to produce goods and services in order to meet their needs.

Indeed, if we consider the initial stages of the formation of economic science (the ancient world, the medieval period), then there is no need to talk about any intelligible definition of its subject, since economic problems were not singled out as an independent area for research. This period corresponds to the term "economy".

The disintegration of feudalism and the formation of capitalism led to the emergence of an independent science - political economy. This happened when the first school in economic science appeared - mercantilism (mid-15th - mid-18th centuries). One of the prominent representatives of mercantilism A. Montchretien in 1615 published the "Treatise of Political Economy", which gave the name to the future science.

If we consider the evolution of approaches to the definition of the subject of economic theory within the framework of various scientific areas and schools, we can see how diverse they are.

Representatives of mercantilism considered national wealth, which they identified with money, as the subject of economic science.

Representatives of classical bourgeois political economy in both England and France also considered the wealth of the nation to be the subject of economic science, although they saw its source in production, i.e. the subject of their analysis was the sphere of production. However, within the framework of specific schools, there were peculiarities: for example, the physiocrats considered only labor in agriculture to be the source of wealth, and the main figures of the English school expanded the subject of political economy to the study of the conditions of production and accumulation (A. Smith), as well as distribution (D. Ricardo) national wealth created in all branches of material production.

The subject of study of Marxist political economy, in accordance with the class approach to the analysis of the life of society, was only production relations (i.e. relations of production, distribution, exchange, consumption), which were considered as a necessary side of social production.

Representatives of the historical school defined as the subject of economic science the study of the daily activities of people, the national or social economy.

Representatives of the Austrian school and the neoclassical direction of economic thought, who actively used the methodology of marginalism, considered the behavior of individuals and social institutions (firms, groups, people, etc.), ways and means of achieving their goals in conditions of limited resources, as the subject of economic science. For example, A. Marshall defined the subject of economic theory as the study of the normal life of human society - the study of wealth and partly of a person, more precisely, incentives for action and motives for opposition. This approach clearly emphasizes the role of man in the economy.

Representatives of the Keynesian trend as a subject of economic theory singled out the patterns of functioning of the national economy as a whole, focusing on the problems of developing and implementing the economic policy of the state.

Thus, we can conclude that in the course of the historical development of economic science, various approaches to understanding its subject have been formed. Obviously, many of them are not mutually exclusive; they concretize and detail the levels and directions of research. With the change in approaches to the interpretation of the subject of economic science, there was a corresponding change in its name - from economics to political economy, from political economy to economics.

Despite the many approaches, in modern Western literature there is a relative unity of opinion on the definition of the subject of economics as a science. In support of this, we present the definitions presented by P. Samuelson and C. McConnell and S. Brew.

"Economic theory is the science of which of the rare productive resources people and society, in the course of time, with or without the participation of money, choose to produce various goods and distribute them for consumption in the present and future among different people and groups of society" . See: Samuelson P. Economics. - M., 1992. - S. 7.

"The subject of economics is the search for the efficient use of scarce resources in the production of goods and services to meet material needs." See: McConnell K., Brew S. Economics: principles, problems and politics. - M., 1993. - P.18.

Thus, in general, the subject of economic theory is the activity of people using limited resources to produce goods and services in order to satisfy their needs.

Method of economic theory. Micro- and macroanalysis. Positive and normative economics.

The subject of economic theory presupposes a certain methodology and special research methods. Methodology is the science of methods (a general philosophical basis), which makes it possible to determine by what methods the goal facing the researcher (scientific knowledge of reality) can be achieved.

In the methodology of economic theory, four main approaches can be distinguished:

subjectivist;

neopositivistic-empirical;

rationalistic;

dialectical-materialistic.

See about this: Economic theory (political economy): Textbook / Under the general editorship. IN AND. Vidyapina, G.P. Zhuravleva. - M.: INFRA-M, 1999. - S. 45-46.

Methodology must be distinguished from method. In turn, the method is a set of specific techniques, methods and principles, with the help of which the ways of solving the tasks are determined.

In the system of methods used in economic science, general (philosophical, ideological), general scientific and private methods are distinguished.

In economic theory, there are two opposite philosophical method- metaphysical (considers all phenomena in isolation, in a state of immutability) and dialectical. The dialectical method allows you to more accurately reflect reality, because:

he proceeds from the fact that in nature and society all phenomena are in constant development, change;

he proceeds from the fact that development proceeds from the simple to the complex, from lower to higher forms;

it takes into account that the driving force of development is the unity and struggle of opposites, the contradictions of certain phenomena (for example, in the economy - the contradiction between production and consumption, contradictions of interests)

General scientific methods include the method of scientific abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, the unity of historical and logical approaches, qualitative and quantitative analysis, and a systematic approach.

(1) One of the most important in economic analysis is the method of scientific abstraction. Scientific abstraction is a mental distraction (abstraction) from non-essential aspects, properties of phenomena (external visible form) and the search for the main, most essential in them. This captures the essence of the phenomenon. As a result of abstraction, economic categories are derived. They act as theoretical expressions of the real aspects of the economy (profit, price, goods, money, wages). Together, economic categories form a conceptual apparatus. Further knowledge is aimed at studying the connection of economic phenomena.

(2) Significant in economic theory is analysis and synthesis. Analysis - the division of the phenomenon under study into its constituent elements and a detailed study of each of them separately, clarifying its place and role within the whole. Synthesis is a method opposite to analysis, with its help, the dismembered and analyzed elements are connected into a single whole, the internal connection between the elements is revealed, their interaction is clarified, and as a result, a holistic view of a particular phenomenon is recreated.

(3) Induction and deduction serve to elucidate the essence of phenomena. Induction is a movement from the particular to the general (accumulation, systematization and generalization of facts in order to formulate theories, provisions, principles). Deduction is the movement from the general to the particular. Although induction and deduction are opposite ways of investigating economic phenomena, it is difficult to separate them in the process of cognition.

(4) A useful method is the unity of historical and logical approaches. Its significance lies in the fact that it allows not only to find out the origin of the system and its elements, but also to substantiate development trends, its stages. Economic theory must show the phenomenon in development, movement, i.e. historically. At the same time, it considers economic processes that are free from the accidents of historical development, i.e. logically.

(5) Another method is qualitative and quantitative analysis. Many economic processes and phenomena develop on the basis of gradual quantitative changes. Such changes can be carried out up to a certain level, called a measure of quantitative changes. When further quantitative changes become impossible within the existing quality, they imply a qualitative change.

(6) Economic phenomena are often studied within the framework of a systems approach. This involves considering the object under study as a system, as a set of interconnected elements. At the same time, this system can be an element of a system of a higher order (level). The systematic approach assumes that economic phenomena are studied in terms of composition and structure, in a certain subordination, with the allocation of cause-and-effect relationships.

In a group private receptions allocate graphic, statistical (for example, correlation analysis), mathematical methods (for example, linear and dynamic programming), modeling (including using computer technology), comparative analysis, practical experiment.

Fundamentals of financial knowledge are required for a person all his life. For orientation in the complex issues of our time, already in the eighth grade, types of economic systems are studied. The table helps to put knowledge on the shelves and remember the material.

Definition of an economic system

The phrase "economic system" has several meanings.

An accepted and functioning scheme of principles for the production of goods, their subsequent distribution and exchange, consumption by users.
Systematization of economic life.
The type of organization of economic life in society, which determines the distribution of the missing resources.

Consumer and producer strive for opposite goals. Consumer - to meet requests at minimal cost. Producer - to profit while reducing costs.

Main types of systems

There are three main types of economic systems:

1) traditional;

2) market;

3) command.

Increasingly, they began to distinguish the fourth type - mixed. It is also included in the table "Types of economic systems". Grade 8 is the time when children get acquainted with this information. The table presents the characteristics of each type, differing from each other in the answers to the main questions of economic production: what to produce, for whom and how.

traditional type

The name itself speaks of the selection criteria: the production of goods is based on tradition. The way of life accepted in society, the transferable skills of production are the basis of the economic system. The social roles of a person are inherited, attempts to change are suppressed and occur extremely rarely. Production technologies are limited, and the goods and services produced do not change. Innovations are not welcome, as they encroach on undermining the established way of life.

Advantages of the system: stability, quality of goods, predictability of development. Its shortcomings: denial of progress, movement towards stagnation, defenselessness against external factors.

In the twenty-first century, the underdeveloped countries are at this stage of economic development.

market type

With the transition to the industrial level of social progress, a market system is formed. It opens up scope for responding to economic inquiries. What, for whom and how to produce, the manufacturer decides, focusing on prices and demand for goods. Own risk, not the traditional solution, is at the heart of managing.

Advantages of the system: the desire for progress, freedom of action, personal responsibility and interest in making a profit, pricing structure. Its shortcomings: uneven development (ups and downs), the likelihood of unemployment, risk, denial of public interests, the elimination of social guarantees.

In most of the countries of the world, a market system was established in the twentieth century.

command type

When the state assumes the right to make decisions on major economic issues, there is a transition to a command type. Each production structure receives a special directive regarding its economic activity. The initiative is not welcomed, stopped. State ownership of the means of production does not allow a quick response to the changing needs of members of society.

Advantages of the system: stability, social guarantees, predictability at the level of central administration, efficiency in the redistribution of resources, high moral motives for work. Its shortcomings: the responsibility of the central government for drawing up plans, the disinterest of workers in the results of labor activity, the shortage of certain goods, strict control and accounting.

The system became widespread in the twentieth century, the classic examples of manifestation are Germany in the thirties and the USSR in the era of the functioning of socialism.

mixed type

An attempt to take the advantages of the market and command systems and give birth to something new without the disadvantages led to the formation of a mixed species. Comparing the market and command types of economic systems, the table presents the merits of each of them. The regulation of the economy by the state is harmoniously combined with the freedom of producers in solving the main economic issues. Entrepreneurs are responsible for satisfying customer needs. The state is called upon to pursue social, tax and antimonopoly policies to grow the economy and improve the lives of the country's inhabitants.

State functions:

price management;
creation of conditions for the production of public goods;
antimonopoly activity;
legislative activity;
protection of the most disenfranchised and vulnerable segments of the population;
macroeconomic control.

Comparison tables

The table clearly shows the comparison of types of economic systems. Let's try to imagine possible structures for comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each type of economy. Consider each option, its pros and cons.

It is possible to represent the types of economic systems in a different form. The social studies table allows you to highlight the main criteria for comparison.

Comparison criteria	Traditional system	market system	command system
What to produce?	Production problems are solved according to established traditions.	Goods in demand.	Good for the whole society.
For whom to produce?		For the consumer of a particular product.	For a variety of consumers
How to produce?		The entrepreneur decides, focusing on making a profit.	Only the central authorities in the state decide.
	Society.	Private property predominates, there is state and group property.	State ownership prevails.
	There is no state yet, or its role is to preserve traditions.	The role of the "night watchman" is assigned: the protection of the borders of the state and law and order within the country.	All determining issues are resolved at the state level.

Such criteria determine the main types of economic systems. The table can be supplemented with a mixed view. This type of economic system answers the questions presented in this way.

What to produce?	For whom to produce?	How to produce?	Who owns the property?	What is the role of the state in the economy?
Consumer goods and public goods.	Both for individual consumers and for the whole society.	The state decides on the production of goods, the entrepreneur - on the release of goods.	Equality of various types, the predominance of state and private property.	Price regulation; organizing and ensuring the production of public goods; fight against monopolies, protection of competition; legislative activity to protect participants in market relations; protection of the poor, protection from the influence of external factors of the entire population; stimulating growth and stabilizing the economy.

Other lines of comparison can be drawn. Types of economic system table allows you to explore comprehensively. For ease of perception, it can be rotated from a vertical to a horizontal position, that is, the questions will appear in the first horizontal line, and the names of system types in the first vertical column.

Additional comparison criteria

To compare the types of economic systems in depth, the table may contain other evaluation criteria. Usually this material is presented at a higher level of study, characteristic of high school students or students who are interested in economics. Following are the main types of economic systems. The criteria table allows you to compare them taking into account modern realities.

The volume of socialization of production	Type of budget constraint	The predominance of the form of ownership
Defining principle of management	Productivity Incentives	The existence of competition
The existence of a shadow economy	Pricing Methods	Ways to control production facilities
Economic regulation	Ensuring social guarantees	Formation of wages

By answering these questions, it is possible to comprehensively characterize the types of economic systems, the table will reflect the pros and cons for each type.

What is an economic system?
Economic system - 1) a way of organizing the economic activity of a society, in accordance with which the problem of distribution of limited resources is solved;

2) an established and effective set of principles, rules, laws that determine the form and content of the main economic relations that arise in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of an economic product;

3) organization of economic life.

Types of economic systems.
The type of economic system is characterized by: 1) forms of ownership; 2) ways of distribution of limited resources; 3) ways of regulating the economy.

Classification No. 1: 1) traditional; 2) command (centralized); 3) market; 4) mixed.

1) Traditional economic system- a way of organizing economic life, in which land and capital are in the common possession of the tribe, and limited resources are distributed in accordance with long-standing traditions.
The questions of what goods and services for whom and how to produce are decided on the basis of traditions passed down from generation to generation.
Advantages: 1) stability of society; 2) a sufficiently high quality of the goods produced.
Disadvantages: 1) lack of technical progress; 2) poor adaptability to changing external conditions; 3) the limited number of goods produced.

2) Command (centralized, directive, planned) economic system- a way of organizing economic life, in which capital and land are owned by the state, and the distribution of limited resources is carried out according to the instructions of the central government and in accordance with plans.
Advantages: 1) the ability to concentrate all the forces and means of society to solve any problem (mobilization opportunities); 2) guarantees people the necessary minimum of life's blessings, providing confidence in the future; 3) avoids unemployment, although general employment is achieved, as a rule, by artificially curbing the growth of labor productivity.
Disadvantages: 1) the inability to accurately plan all the needs of society and allocate resources accordingly, which leads to overproduction of some goods and a shortage of others; 2) lack of incentive to produce quality goods; 3) lack of economic freedom among citizens.

3) Market economic system- a way of organizing economic life in which capital and land are owned by individuals, and limited resources are distributed through markets.
A market economy is an economy dominated by a private form of ownership, economic activity is carried out by economic entities at their own expense, all major decisions are made by them at their own peril and risk.
Fundamentals of the market system: 1) the right to private property; 2) economic freedom; 3) competition.
Private property is the socially recognized right of individual citizens and their associations to own, use and dispose of a certain volume (part) of any type of economic resources.
Advantages: 1) flexibility, the ability to adapt to changing conditions; 2) the presence of incentives for technical progress; 3) rational (???) use of resources.
Disadvantages: 1) inability to ensure income equality, a consistently high standard of living; 2) weak interest in fundamental scientific research; 3) development instability (crises, inflation); 4) inefficient use of irreplaceable resources; 5) lack of full employment and price stability.

Each economic system answers three questions differently: 1) what to produce?; 2) how to produce?; 3) for whom to produce?

What to produce? 1) traditional: products of agriculture, hunting, fishing, few products and services are produced, and what to produce is determined by customs and traditions; 2) centralized: determined by groups of professionals: engineers, economists, industry representatives - "planners"; 3) market: consumers themselves determine, producers produce what can be bought.

How to produce? 1) traditional: they are produced in the same way and with what the ancestors produced; 2) centralized: determined by the plan; 3) market: determined by the producers themselves.

For whom to produce? 1) traditional: most people exist on the verge of survival, the additional product goes to the leaders or land owners, the rest is distributed according to customs; 2) centralized: “planners”, directed by political leaders, determine who and how much will receive goods and services; 3) market: consumers get as much as they want, producers profit.

4) In many countries there is mixed economy, which combines the features of market and command economic systems, the economic freedom of producers and the regulatory role of the state.
A mixed economy is a way of organizing economic life in which land and capital are privately owned, and the distribution of limited resources is carried out both by markets and with significant state participation.

Classification No. 2: 1) market; 2) non-market (traditional and centralized); 3) mixed.

Classification No. 3: 1) commodity economy (centralized system, market system, mixed system); 2) natural economy.

Natural economy- 1) an economy in which people produce products only to satisfy their own needs, without resorting to exchange, to the market; 2) an economy that satisfies its needs at the expense of its own production.
commodity economy- 1) an economy in which products are produced for sale, and the connection between producers and consumers is carried out through the market; 2) an economy in which production is oriented to the market.

The term "property" is used in three meanings:
1. As a synonym for the word "thing" (ordinary, everyday meaning).
2. The legal right of ownership includes three powers (powers) that only the owner can have: 1) possession (actual possession of this property, legally fixed); 2) use (the process of extracting useful properties from this property); 3) disposal (determination of the future fate of this property = sale, donation, exchange, inheritance, leasing or pledge, etc.).

Lease (from lat. arrendare - to lease) - 1) the provision of property (land) by its owner for temporary use to other persons on contractual terms, for a fee; 2) the right to use without having the right to dispose.

Trust (from English trust - trust) - 1) the right of the owner to transfer the right to manage his property to another person, without the right to interfere in his actions; 2) the institution of trust property associated with the transfer of property and its property rights by the founder of the trust (beneficiary) for a certain period to the trustee.

Property as an economic category - 1) relations between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption regarding the appropriation of production resources, factors of production of material goods; 2) belonging of things, material and spiritual values to certain persons, the legal right to such belonging and economic relations between people regarding ownership, division, redistribution of property objects.

Subjects of ownership: 1 person; 2) family; 3) labor collective; 4) social group; 5) population of the territory; 6) management bodies of all levels; 7) the people of the country.

Property objects: factors of production and finished products: 1) land, land plots, lands; 2) money, currency, securities; 3) material and property values; 4) natural resources; 5) jewelry; 6) buildings for social and cultural purposes; 7) main production assets; 8) labor force; 9) spiritual, intellectual and informational resources.

Functional characteristics of the property: 1) ownership, 2) management, 3) control.

Which of these characteristics is the most important?
1. Karl Marx put ownership first.
2. In the XX century. property management is becoming increasingly important.

Technocracy (Greek ?????, “skill” + Greek ??????, “power”) is a socio-political system in which society is regulated by competent scientists and engineers based on the principles of scientific and technical rationality.
Technocratic ideas were expressed by A. A. Bogdanov, who introduced the term “technical intelligentsia” into circulation (in 1909 in the article “Philosophy of the Modern Naturalist”), the term “technocracy” itself is an Americanism that appeared in the 1920s. The idea of technocracy as the power of engineers was originally described by Thorstein Veblen in his social utopia The Engineers and the Price System (1921). Veblen's ideas were developed by James Burnham in The Managerial Revolution (1941) and by John Kenneth Galbraith in The New Industrial Society (1967).
Thanks to the scientific and technological revolution, knowledge becomes the basis of power, subordinating both strength and wealth to itself. The very appearance of power is also changing - refusing direct and rough domination, it takes on softer forms of influence and domination. Now the level of knowledge, and not the presence or absence of private property, becomes the main source of social differences. Power in the information age passes from those who give orders to those who form the consciousness of people, lay in it certain stereotypes, images, behaviors.
The creators of meanings are the creative layer of the information society, the “creative class”, which forms stereotypes of behavior, patterns of perception and actions of the media and through them influences the worldview and behavior of wide sections of citizens. Real power is increasingly fading into the shadows, to various non-governmental pressure groups, often international or simply foreign. The official government only draws up and implements the policy developed by these circles. Hard power based on violence has given way to "soft power" based on persuading people, ideological work, and subtle manipulation of public consciousness.
"Soft power" is a new historical type of power based not on direct violence or economic enslavement, but on persuasion and information manipulation. "Soft power" is turning into the main tool of power in the information age, when the old methods of domination are losing their effectiveness and there is a need for covert and unobtrusive subordination of people to other people's interests.
The material basis of "soft power" is formed by the triumvirate "1) creators of meanings - 2) non-governmental organizations - 3) mass media".

How are the different types of property different?
Those who own the means of production, how and by whom the income from the use of property is distributed, who is a participant in economic activity.
Classification No. 1: 1) general (primitive-communal, family, state, collective); 2) private (labor = family, farming, individual labor activity; non-labor = slave-owning, feudal, bourgeois-individual); 3) mixed (stock, cooperative, joint).
1) Historically, the first type of property was common property, in which all people were united in collectives and all means of production and produced goods belonged to all members of society.
2) The second in time of origin was private property, in which individuals treated the means of production as belonging personally only to them. Private property is a form of legal consolidation for a person of the rights to own, use and dispose of any property that he can use not only to satisfy personal needs, but also to conduct commercial activities. Private property was dominant in the economy until the 20th century. Opponents of private property pointed out that it is a source of exploitation of man by man, contributes to the separation of people, the development of such qualities as selfishness, individualism and greed, and creates inequality between people. Proponents of private property argued that the feeling of private property is a natural feeling of man, which expresses his nature. In their opinion, it is private property that gives the individual the opportunity not to depend on the state, being a guarantee of human rights.
3) In the XIX century. the main figure of the owner was the capitalist-entrepreneur. In the XX century. various types of mixed (collective-private, group, corporate) ownership have been developed, in which the features of the first two types are combined. A typical form of such ownership is a joint-stock company (corporation).
Corporation (lat. corporatio - association, community) - a form of organization of an enterprise, where the right to property is divided into parts by shares, and therefore the owners of corporations are called shareholders.
Unlike the individual owner and members of the partnership, the maximum that a shareholder can lose is the amount paid by him for the shares. Shareholders can move in and out of a corporation simply by buying them. The capital of such a company is formed as a result of the sale of securities - shares, which are evidence that their owner has contributed - a share - to the capital of the corporation and is entitled to receive a dividend. Dividend - part of the profit that is paid to the owner of the shares (as a rule, in proportion to the amount of the share contributed by him).

Classification No. 2: 1) private (personal, individual); 2) state; 3) collective, joint.
Individual private property is widespread (agriculture, craft, trade, services).
Signs of an individual private enterprise: 1) ownership of the means of production used; 2) the use of the personal labor of the producer, his family, employees; 3) the right to single-handedly dispose of income from economic activity; 4) the right of economic independence in solving economic issues.
In the economy of the late XX century. the importance of state property is great (from 15 to 20%). Usually the state concentrates in its hands enterprises and industries of strategic importance (railroads, communications enterprises, nuclear and hydroelectric power stations).
Such forms of property as cooperative and collective property have also been preserved. With cooperative ownership, a group of people united to share some property (own or rented) manages this property. In a collective enterprise, the owner is the collective of this enterprise, which takes part in the management of the production process.
A municipal form of ownership is a form of ownership in which property is at the disposal, under the jurisdiction of local authorities.

Forms of ownership in Russia.
According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, in Russia 1) private, 2) state, 3) municipal and other forms of ownership are recognized and protected in the same way. The list of forms of ownership specified in the Constitution and the Civil Code (CC) of the Russian Federation is not exhaustive, since it is accompanied by a reservation, by virtue of which other forms of ownership are recognized in the Russian Federation.

Privatization(lat. privatus - private) - 1) transfer of state property to individual citizens or legal entities created by them; 2) the process of denationalization of ownership of the means of production, property, housing, land, natural resources. It is carried out through the sale or gratuitous transfer of objects of state and municipal property into the hands of collectives and individuals with the formation on this basis of corporate, joint-stock, private property.
Nationalization(lat. natio - people) - the transfer of private property into the hands of the state.

Market and capitalism.
Version number 1. Capitalism = market system.
Capitalism is a type of society based on private property and a market economy.
In various currents of social thought, it is defined as a system of free enterprise, a stage in the development of an industrial society, and the modern stage of capitalism is defined as a "mixed economy", "post-industrial society", "information society", etc.; in Marxism, capitalism is a socio-economic formation based on private ownership of the means of production and the exploitation of wage labor by capital.

Version number 2. Capitalism? market system.
Capitalism is not just a method of efficient economic activity that naturally arises in the bosom of a market economy. Capitalism is an intellectual, psychological and social breakthrough, inaccessible to a pagan, a man of traditional culture.
What distinguishes capitalism from the market is not so much the object of activity as its mode, scale, and goals. Fernand Braudel, describing this complex phenomenon, called it “anti-market”, since there is clearly a different activity, non-equivalent exchanges, in which competition, which is the basic law of the so-called market economy, does not take its rightful place.
Fernand Braudel (1902 - 1985) - an outstanding French historian. He laid the foundations of the world-systems approach.
Braudel's most famous work is considered to be his three-volume Material Civilization, Economics and Capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries. (1979). This book shows how the economies of European (and not only) countries functioned in the pre-industrial period. The development of trade and money circulation are characterized in particular detail, much attention is also paid to the influence of the geographical environment on social processes.
Arnold Toynbee:
"I believe that in all countries where the maximum private profit acts as a motive for production, the private enterprise (market) system ceases to function."

What is capitalism?
Capitalism is a holistic ideology, plan and scenario of a specific world order, the essence of which is not the production itself or trading operations, but systemic operations aimed at controlling the market and aimed at extracting systemic profit (sustainable excess profit).
A rough, not too precise and absolutely unattractive analogue can serve as individual features of the mafia, moreover, in the "classical" sense of the concept, i.e. not as crime, but as a specific system for managing the world, controlling it, collecting tribute.
Capitalism acquires universal power not through administrative, national structures, but mainly through international economic mechanisms. Such power, by its nature, is not limited by the state border and extends far beyond its borders.
George Soros. Crisis of world capitalism. The open society is in danger:
“The analogy with the empire in this case is justified, because the system of world capitalism governs those who belong to it, and it is not easy to get out of it. Moreover, it has a center and a periphery like a real empire, and the center benefits from the periphery. More importantly, the system of world capitalism exhibits imperialist tendencies... It cannot be at peace as long as there are any markets or resources that are not yet drawn into its orbit. In this respect, it is not much different from the empire of Alexander the Great or Attila the Hun, and its expansionist tendencies may be the beginning of its death.
The nutrient medium of capitalism, its magnetic field, lines of force are historically formed in the nervous plexus of financial schemes and the trophy economy of the crusades, mainly in the coastal areas of Europe (the exception is the "land port" of fairs in Champagne). His family nests are, first of all, the city-states and regions of Italy: Venice, Genoa, Florence, Lombardy, Tuscany, as well as the North Sea coast: the cities of the Hanseatic League, Antwerp, and later Amsterdam.
The spiritual source of capitalism was, apparently, hetero-confessional, but quite united in its basis - and free from the specific restrictions imposed by the Christian worldview and culture - heresies. During this period, sects and heresies were actively spreading in Europe: the baton was passed from the Paulicians and Bogomils to the Patarenes and Albigensians. These are also the Templars, who were actively involved in financial activities, the very system of organization of which is an impressive prototype of future TNBs and TNCs.
The Waldensians played a special role in the emergence of capitalism. During the years of persecution that followed the Albigensian wars, the Waldensians divided, and the radical part, which refused to repent, moved to German-speaking countries, to the Netherlands, Bohemia, Piedmont, to the Western and Southern Alps, where, according to some information, communities that had left from state Christianity in the 4th century. There, in hard-to-reach areas, places of exile, a kind of "European Siberia", in the harsh conditions of the struggle for survival, the spirit of Protestantism is formed, marked by a special attitude to work, personal asceticism, enthusiasm, self-denial, honesty, scrupulousness, corporatism.
Former Waldensians are actively introduced into wholesale and retail trade, which allows you to move freely and establish multiple connections. Contacts with the Waldensians are attributed to almost all significant figures of pre-Reformation Protestantism: from John Wycliffe to Jan Hus. Exiled from the legal world, forced to live in masks, to communicate indirectly, the sectarians found that it was precisely because of these circumstances that they had serious competitive advantages and were perfectly prepared for systemic operations. In other words, they have a mechanism for the successful implementation of collusion and control over the situation, for the development and implementation of complex, complex projects, the implementation of large (often collective) capital investments, the informal conclusion of trust agreements that require a long-term turnover of funds and active co-presence in different parts of the world.
On this basis, a new type of attitude is spreading in Western Europe, which is characterized by active fatalism, considering earthly wealth as a visible proof of vocation, and success as a sign of charisma. In medieval Europe, however, a completely different logic dominated: when labor was obligatory, the opposition of the necessary - necessitas - to the superfluous - superbia - was emphasized with the corresponding moral assessment, that is, the desire for profit was assessed as a shame and even the very activity of a professional merchant as hardly pleasing to God.

Economic systems

Economic systems

Economic the purpose of the consumer

Economic purpose of the firm

The main economic goals of modern society

Traditional economy based on tradition transmitted from generation to generation. These traditions determine what goods and services are produced, for whom, and how. The list of benefits, production technology and distribution are based on the customs of a given country.

Comparative table of economic systems

The economic roles of members of society are determined by heredity and caste.

Market economy

WHAT?

AS?

Question " FOR WHOM?

For every enterprise

Economic system. Types of economic systems.

Economic systems- this is a set of interrelated economic elements that form a certain integrity, the economic structure of society; the unity of relations that develop over the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.

Economic systems

Modern economic systems

The use of resources to meet needs is subject to economic goals pursued by the subjects of economic relations in their economic activities.

Economic the purpose of the consumer is to maximize the satisfaction of all needs.

Economic purpose of the firm profit maximization or cost minimization.

The main economic goals of modern society are: economic growth, increased efficiency of production, full employment and socio-economic stability.

The fundamental questions of economics: What, how and for whom to produce, in order to achieve the above goals, are solved differently in different economic systems.

To distinguish these systems, two main criteria are used:

form of ownership of the means of production (Means and objects of labor);
the way of coordinating and managing economic activity;

With a high degree of conditionality, one can single out a model of a traditional, command-administrative (centralized) and market economy.

Traditional economic system

Traditional economy based on tradition

This type of economy has survived today in some underdeveloped countries, where technical progress penetrates with great difficulty, since it, as a rule, undermines the customs and traditions established in these countries.

Characteristic features of traditional economies:

Weak development of engineering and production technologies;
A large share of manual labor in all sectors of the economy;
Insignificant role in the traditional economy of entrepreneurship, including small business with a constant increase in the scale of activities of large divisions;
The predominance of traditions and customs in all aspects of the life of society.

Market economic system

The main features of the capitalist economy:

Market economy characterized by private property on resources and using the system of markets and prices to coordinate and manage economic activity. What, how and for whom to produce is determined by the market through the mechanism of supply and demand.

In the capitalist system, material resources are owned by private individuals. The right to enter into binding legal contracts allows individuals to dispose of their material resources as they wish.

The manufacturer seeks to produce ( WHAT?) those products that satisfy the needs of the buyer and bring him the greatest profit. The consumer himself decides what product to buy and how much money to pay for it.

Since, under conditions of free competition, the establishment of prices does not depend on the producer, then the question " AS?"to produce, the economic entity of the economy responds with the desire to produce products at lower costs than its competitor in order to sell more due to lower prices. The use of technological progress and various management methods contribute to the solution of this problem.

Question " FOR WHOM?" is decided in favor of consumers with the highest income.

In such an economic system, the government does not interfere in the economy. Its role is reduced to the protection of private property, the establishment of laws that facilitate the functioning of free markets.

Command economic system

A command or centralized economy is the opposite of a market economy. It is based on state ownership of all material resources. Hence, all economic decisions are made by state bodies through centralized (directive planning).

For every enterprise the production plan provides for what and in what volume to produce, certain resources are allocated, thereby the state decides how to produce, not only suppliers, but also buyers are indicated, that is, the question is decided for whom to produce.

The means of production are distributed among branches on the basis of long-term priorities determined by the planner.

Mixed economic system

Today it is impossible to speak about the presence in this or that state in its pure form of one of the three models. In most modern developed countries, there is a mixed economy that combines elements of all three types.

A mixed economy involves the use of the regulatory role of the state and the economic freedom of producers. Entrepreneurs and workers move from industry to industry by their own decision, not by government directives. The state, in turn, implements antimonopoly, social, fiscal (tax) and other types of economic policy, which, to one degree or another, contributes to the country's economic growth and an increase in the living standards of the population.

Major economic systems

Economic systems

Modern economic systems

The use of resources to meet needs is subject to economic goals pursued by the subjects of economic relations in their economic activities.

Economic the purpose of the consumer is to maximize the satisfaction of all needs.

Economic purpose of the firm profit maximization or cost minimization.

The main economic goals of modern society are: economic growth, increased efficiency of production, full employment and socio-economic stability.

The fundamental questions of economics: What, how and for whom to produce, in order to achieve the above goals, are solved differently in different economic systems.

To distinguish these systems, two main criteria are used:

form of ownership of the means of production (Means and objects of labor);
the way of coordinating and managing economic activity;

With a high degree of conditionality, one can single out a model of a traditional, command-administrative (centralized) and market economy.

Traditional economic system

Characteristic features of traditional economies:

Weak development of engineering and production technologies;
A large share of manual labor in all sectors of the economy;
Insignificant role in the traditional economy of entrepreneurship, including small business with a constant increase in the scale of activities of large divisions;
The predominance of traditions and customs in all aspects of the life of society.

Market economic system

The main features of the capitalist economy:

In the capitalist system, material resources are owned by private individuals. The right to enter into binding legal contracts allows individuals to dispose of their material resources as they wish.

The manufacturer seeks to produce ( WHAT?) those products that satisfy the needs of the buyer and bring him the greatest profit.

The main types of economic systems: traditional, market, command, mixed

The consumer himself decides what product to buy and how much money to pay for it.

Question " FOR WHOM?" is decided in favor of consumers with the highest income.

Command economic system

The means of production are distributed among branches on the basis of long-term priorities determined by the planner.

Mixed economic system

CHAPTER 2. ECONOMIC SYSTEM

2.1. Economic system. Types of economic systems

economic system- this is the organization of the economic life of society, based on a certain structure of relationships between economic agents.

The type of economic system depends on the prevailing economic goals in society, forms of ownership and methods for solving economic problems.

As K. R. McConnell and S. L. Brew note in Economics, “... the industrialized countries of the world basically differ in two ways: 1) in the form of ownership of the means of production; 2) in the way in which economic activity is coordinated and managed. activity" (Campbell R. McConnell, Stanley L. Brew. Economics. M.: 1992. - P. 47). There are two ways of coordinating economic elections: spontaneous and hierarchical. The spontaneous method assumes that each firm and household independently decide what, how and for whom to produce. The hierarchical order singles out such an economic entity that answers the fundamental questions of the economy solely for all other economic agents.

Economists distinguish four types of economic systems: traditional, market, command and mixed.

Economy types

Each system responds in its own way to the fundamental economic questions discussed in Section 1.3.

Traditional economy - this economic system is based on the observance of historically established customs, canons of religion, traditions that determine the technology and means of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of economic goods. The role of economic agents in the economic system is largely determined by the heredity and continuity of economic relations, as well as the division of society into classes. Economic problems - what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce - are determined mainly by centuries of tradition. Customs determine the distribution, exchange and consumption of resources and products. The introduction of new techniques and technologies is carried out very slowly, as it conflicts with customs and traditions, threatens their preservation, and hence the stability of the existing social order. Currently, this economic system functions with elements of a market economy in approximately 140 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

The main features of the traditional system are:

1. The predominance of private ownership.

2. Production, distribution and exchange are based on customs, traditions and religious rites. Religious, caste and cultural values are primary in relation to new forms of economic activity.

3. The economic role of households is determined by heredity and caste.

4. Technological progress is sharply limited, as it threatens the foundations of traditional society. As a result, the rate of economic growth is insignificant. Moreover, the growth rate of the population exceeds the growth rate of industrial production.

5. Illiteracy of the population, high unemployment and low labor productivity.

6. Huge external debt of the state, which is difficult to liquidate.

7. The big role of the state and law enforcement agencies (army, police) in the economy and politics of these countries.

Market economy it is an economic system based on the spontaneous coordination of economic elections. This type of economic system is characterized by free enterprise, pricing based on the interaction of supply and demand, and the predominance of private property. The market system answers the fundamental questions of the economy in the following way. Firms produce those goods and services that are in demand. Goods are produced using a technology that can minimize costs. Goods and services are produced by those economic agents that have advantages in the production of this product. Benefits are understood as the possibility of minimizing costs. And finally, goods are produced for those who have sufficient income. People without income are outside the process of consuming goods. In a market economy, there is a private form of ownership of resources and final goods and services.

In a market economy, the state does not interfere in economic relations and does not influence the behavior of agents regarding the production, distribution and consumption of goods. The market mechanism is considered in more detail in the chapter -.

Command economy - e economic system, the main role in the regulation of which is played by the state. In this system, the state determines what products and in what quantities should be produced, for whom to produce and how to produce. Why is the state given the role of the main regulator in the economy? Because in this economic system, state ownership of all the main means of production prevails, that is, the bulk of economic resources are owned by the entire population living in the country. On behalf of the population, the state manages the distribution of all basic economic resources, as well as their use.

Due to little or no private ownership of the means of production, there is no market in a command economy. It is being replaced by central planning, distribution and supply. However, there are elements of the market here. Manufactured products are considered goods, but the prices are set by the state. There is a network of trade institutions that act as intermediaries between sellers (state or cooperative enterprises) and buyers (enterprises, institutions or the public).

The advantages of a command economy are:

1) a minimum of uncertainty in changing the economic situation in the short term, a relatively stable development of the economy;

2) the possibility of setting social goals for the economy and their achievement;

3) the absence of sharp differences in the income levels of the population between its various groups, which contributes to a more even development of all strata of society;

4) the possibility of maintaining a stable level of employment.

But, like any economic system, the command economy has its drawbacks:

1) the lack of freedom of choice of goods (in particular, the means of production) for sellers and buyers - everything is planned and distributed in advance;

2) the need to create a large, complex bureaucratic structure of economic management, often hindering the rapid adoption of operational decisions;

3) subjectivity in the management of the economy, which leads to imbalance and disproportionate development of industries;

4) alienation of owners (population) from property objects (means of production) and lack of competition (competitiveness), which leads to lack of initiative of workers and insufficient incentives for more efficient use of economic resources; as a result - the underutilization of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, a decrease in efficiency, stagnation in the economy.

An example of a command economy is the economic system in the former Soviet Union and in the countries of the socialist direction of development.

Comparing the market economy with the command-and-control economy, two main features of difference can be distinguished, which are presented in Table. 2.1.

Table 2.1.

Characteristics of market and command economic

systems on two main grounds

Signs of difference:
	dominant form of ownership	mechanism for regulating economic relations
Market economy	private ownership of the means of production	market (objective)
command economy	state ownership of the means of production	state (subjective)

mixed economy- This is a type of economic system based on a market pricing mechanism, but including state intervention in economic relations.

In modern conditions, a combination of two types of economic systems - market and command - is increasingly finding its place. This allows you to use the advantages of these systems and, to some extent, neutralize their shortcomings. There are countries in which the market mechanism of regulation prevails, and state ownership, as well as state intervention in the economy, play a less significant role. These include the United States and many Western European countries.

But there are also countries where the state is actively involved in managing the economy in a market environment, setting itself certain development goals and using various management methods. Among these countries, two main models of a mixed economic system can be distinguished. One of these models reflects the economic system of Japan, which reached high rates of development in the postwar period. Another model is the economic system of Sweden, whose goals are dominated by social goals.

Table 2.2.

The main features of the Japanese and Swedish models of the economy

Japanese model	Swedish model
1. The global goal is high rates of economic growth with the subsequent achievement of social results.	1. The global goal is to solve social problems.
2. State plans for economic development, which are advisory (optional) in nature, but contribute to a more proportional and efficient development.	2. The active participation of the state in ensuring economic stability and the redistribution of income, the creation of significant public (state) consumption funds for this.
3. Preservation of customs and traditions along with active study and implementation of best practices of other developed countries.	3. High level of civil rights, social justice.

An economic system in which social goals are becoming increasingly important (free healthcare, education, preservation and development of culture, equalization of income levels between segments of the population, etc.) is called a socially oriented economy.

Since the early 1990s, Russia has been moving from a command economy to a mixed one. The concept of transition includes three stages: creation of prerequisites for market relations; creation of conditions for the formation of market infrastructure and creation of conditions for the functioning of the market mechanism.

The prerequisites for market relations include:

— advancing the creation of a legal framework for a market economy;

- privatization - the denationalization of a significant part of the means of production, leading to the emergence of private owners, the development of entrepreneurship and competition;

— pricing liberalization — transition from rigid state prices to free market prices.

The conditions for the formation of the market are:

- gradual removal of state authorities from direct participation in the economic activities of enterprises;

- a comprehensive triune approach to the formation of the main types of market - commodity, financial and labor markets;

Active formation and development of market infrastructure

Creation of a network of commercial banks, commodity and stock exchanges, investment funds, insurance companies, arbitration institutions, etc.

- gradual opening of the national economy and integration (entry) into the system of world economic relations;

— provision by the state of social protection of citizens.

The conditions for the functioning of the market should be:

- freedom of activity of economic organizations (economic agents) within the framework of state laws governing the relationship of subjects;

full responsibility of entrepreneurs for the results of their activities;

- freedom of competition, where it is effective;

- freedom of pricing, limited for monopoly markets.

Analyzing models of a mixed economy, three main groups of economic functions of the state can be distinguished: maintaining economic efficiency, maintaining development stability, and ensuring social justice. The role of the state and its functions in a mixed economy will be discussed in section 15.1.

The economic system of society. Criteria for the selection of economic systems.

Economical system- a complex, ordered set of economic. relations, types of households. activities of society, carried out in the forms of certain production and social. relationships and social institutions, the purpose of which is yavl. satisfaction of society's needs for material goods and services.

In the economic science, there are different approaches and different criteria for periodization of socio-economic. development of society. The main approaches are: formational and civilizational.
The boundaries separating the economic. systems apart, are the industrial and scientific and technological revolution. Within each of these systems, a more detailed typology is possible, which makes it possible to determine the directions for the synthesis of formational and civilizational approaches.
I. Formative approach characteristic of Marxist theory. Marx formulated a three-term classification:
-Primary (archaic) formation included primitive communal and Asian modes of production.
— Second major formation based on private property (slavery, serfdom, capitalism), Marx called secondary.
— Third – communist , based on the destruction of private property, which includes a number of modes of production and consists of two phases (socialism; communism).
According with the formational approach of K. Marx , which determined the relationship between the nature of the connection of the means of production and the labor force, are highlighted five socio-economic formations:

— primitive communal formation - undivided dominance of communal ownership of the means of production;

— slave formation - full ownership of slave owners for all conditions of production;

— feudal formation - full ownership of the land by the feudal lords, which led to the personal dependence on them of the peasants attached to the land;

- capitalist formation - private ownership of the means of production and the separation of the worker from them;

- communist formation - public ownership of the means of production, from which direct producers are not separated.

Socio-economic formation- This is a historical type of society that develops on the basis of a certain mode of production.
Civilization approach suggests studying. world history as a single planetary whole with a gradual change of civilizations. In highlighting differences. periods of development, this approach involves the definition of various periods of social development based on the totality of factors of material and spiritual culture, and not just production and economic ones. For this approach, an important circumstance is not social wealth, but human development. In the history of the development of human society, periods of certain states of society (civilizations) are singled out, and not successive historical stages; shows the continuity of the historical process, its movement in interconnection and continuity, the accumulation of universal values. The civilizational approach means the formation of universal human values, shows their role in the development of society.
The peculiarity of the first developments of the civilizational approach and the periodization of human society is the division of the history of society into a number of local civilizations, little or no connected with each other.
The new, modern civilizational approach to the periodization of the development of society differs significantly from the previous one. Firstly, he considers humanity as a single civilization with the priority and dominance of universal human values. Secondly, the priority of the universal puts limits in the development of the special features of each culture and at the same time enriches it with the common achievements of all mankind. Thirdly, at the center of civilization is man, his free, all-round development.
The civilizational approach was first developed by A. Ferguson. Based on the periodization of the development of forms of economic activity and property relations, they singled out three periods:
- wildness with the development of the hunting economy and the absence of private property;

— barbarism characterized by the development of cattle breeding and the emergence of private property;

- civilization with the development of agriculture and the dominance of private property.

The significance of the modern civilizational approach to the periodization of history lies in the fact that it allows in general terms to single out such states in the development of mankind as:

- a single (primitive) civilization;

- its division into two large - eastern and western civilizations;

- the formation in modern conditions of a qualitatively new unified world civilization.
III. According to another classification, which uses the criterion "The degree of industrial development of society", There are three economic systems:

— Pre-instrumental society - characterized by undeveloped productive forces, the need for a direct appeal of man to nature.

— Industrial Society- is distinguished by developed productive forces with large-scale machine production.

— post-industrial society - is based on a technological method of production based on the use of the achievements of scientific and technical progress, has a highly developed service sector. In its economic system, scientific knowledge and innovations play the main role, and in the professional structure - specialists.

IV. At present, the classification of economic systems based on "Method of organizing economic activity" received the most distribution. This approach takes into account the following features:

- the dominant form of management;

— main forms of ownership;

— a mechanism for coordinating economic entities and actions;

- motives that stimulate the conduct of economic activity.

Based on these criteria, the following systems can be distinguished:

- traditional economy; - planned economy; - market economy; — transitional economy.
traditional economy, based on customs, traditions, long-term experience of people's behavior in specific economic situations. This is the economy of subsistence farming, serving itself at the expense of its own resources and forces. Differs in conservatism and insufficient flexibility.
market type, which is based on the mechanism of market pricing, the interaction of supply and demand. Differs in dynamism and ability to self-regulation.
command economy, in which commodity-money relations are formal, managed by the administrative center, characterized by a lack of flexibility, but great opportunities for mobilizing resources.
mixed economy , which is characterized by the presence of elements of different types and sectors of economic systems. It is represented by various models of socially oriented market economy.
Overcoming to some extent the limitations of this classification, modern economic. thought highlights another type of economy - mixed economy.

Major economic systems

It is characterized by the stable presence of elements of different types of economic systems. It is this type of economy that represents a number of modern Western European countries. This type has objective prerequisites. Thus, the market mechanism alone in modern life does not provide effective and sustainable self-regulation of the economic system, but leads to a certain deregulation of the economy (crises, unemployment, inflation). The way out is found in a certain integration of regulatory mechanisms - market and state. In this respect, the economic system is also becoming mixed.
The main difference between a mixed economy- its diversity. The main features of this type are: - a combination of private and public sectors of the economy;

— a combination of market and state regulation mechanisms;

- a combination of privately owned market motivation with the motivation of social stability in society.

Introduction

§ 1.1 Economic systems and their essence

§ 1.2 Centralized economic system

§ 1.3 Market economy and its advantages

§ 1.4 Cons of the market and the problem of externalities

§ 1.5 Comparative characteristics of centralized and market economies

§ 1.6 Mixed economy

Chapter 2. Russia between two economies

§ 2.1 Initial positions for the transition to market relations

§ 2.2 Geopolitical and historical features

§ 2.3 Other features of economic development

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Any modern diversified social production needs a certain internal coordination and organization. How, say, to combine the production of grain, baking bread and the needs of the population in it, so that all producers and trade are profitable, and consumers are satisfied? Specifically, such a docking is manifested in the solution of four main problems by any society: what, how, for whom and how much to produce. It is clear that different countries have solved and are solving such problems in different ways.

The totality of all economic processes taking place in a society on the basis of the property relations and organizational-legal forms operating in it is the economic system of this society. In the last one and a half to two centuries, the following systems have operated in the world: a market economy of free competition (pure capitalism), a modern market economy (modern capitalism), an administrative-command and a traditional economy.

Each system has its own national models of economic organization, as countries differ in their history, level of economic development, social and national conditions1.

Based on the foregoing, it can be concluded that the topic chosen for the study is very relevant. The relevance of this problem is the motive for choosing it for this work.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of various economic systems.

The objectives of the study are as follows: to give the concept and general characteristics of the economic system, to reveal the advantages and disadvantages of various economic systems, and also, within the framework of the above points, to show some features of the Russian model of the transition economy.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters and a conclusion. In the first chapter, the author considers theoretical approaches to the study of the economic system of society and its various types. The second chapter highlights issues related to the Russian model of the transition economy.

This topic has been extensively studied in many literature sources.

Chapter 1. Economic system and its structure. Types of economic systems

§ 1.1 Economic systems and their essence

In the process of economic activity, economic relations between people always function as a certain system, including objects and subjects of these relations, various forms of relations between them. The economy of each country is a large system in which there are many different types of activities, and each link, component of the system can exist only because it receives something from others, i.e. is interconnected and interdependent on other links.

economic system - this is a specially ordered system of relations between producers and consumers of material and non-material goods and services.

This means that in the economic system, economic activity is always organized, coordinated in one way or another1.

The concept of an economic system is interpreted differently by different economists:

An economic system is a set of mechanisms and institutions for making and implementing decisions regarding production, income and consumption within a certain geographical area. (P. Gregory, R. Stewart)

The economic system includes all institutions, organizations, laws and regulations, traditions, beliefs, attitudes, values, prohibitions and patterns of behavior that directly or indirectly affect economic behavior and results. (F. Pryor)

Such definitions show that economic systems are multidimensional.

On fig. 1.1 presents the general moments of any economic system.

Figure 1.1. General points of any economic system

Human society in its development has used and uses various economic systems. They differ in their approach and methods of solving the main economic problems.

In the last one and a half to two centuries of the development of human society, various economic systems have operated in the world. Among them, two market systems stand out clearly - the market of free competition (pure capitalism) and the modern market economy (modern capitalism) and two non-market systems - centralized and traditional. Nevertheless, one can generally distinguish two main ways of organizing production and, accordingly, two types of economic systems: centralized and market. Let us dwell on these types of economic systems and consider the advantages and disadvantages of each of them.

§ 1.2 Centralized economic system

The essence of this system is in state monopoly, that is, in the fact that the all-powerful state (through its powerful bureaucratic apparatus) absolutely dominates the economy. Government officials from the center command all economic resources and decide with absolute power what, how, for whom and how much to produce, and most importantly, how to distribute what is produced. Therefore, such a system based on coercion is often called a command, command, distribution economy1. Characterizing it, we single out the following main features (Fig.

USE. Economy. Topic 4. Economic systems

Figure 1.2. Characteristics of a centralized economy

First, state ownership of the means of production reigns supreme in the economy. Land, plants, factories, transport, trade and other enterprises - everything belongs to the state. The property of individual citizens is usually limited to personal property and a small subsidiary plot.

Secondly, all production, exchange and distribution of products are carried out according to state plans, which determine thousands of the most complex relationships in the national economy. The inevitable errors in such comprehensive planning give rise to numerous inconsistencies, failures and deficits in the economy. And a huge bureaucracy is working to draw up and ensure the implementation of such detailed plans.

At the same time, thirdly, instead of economic levers stimulating production (attractive taxes, orders, loans), purely administrative methods of management are used (bureaucratic dictates, orders, control, punishment, encouragement), and the main goal of enterprises is not to work for the consumer, but execution of the plan (no matter how unreasonable it may be).

Fourthly, the financial dictatorship of the state also works for the rigid centralization of the economy. The lion's share of all funds of economic entities is centrally redistributed through the state budget. High taxes and deductions flow into a single center in huge financial flows, on which officials then arbitrarily allocate budgetary allocations to those who, from their point of view, need it.

Prices, wages, investments, profits and losses - everything is “scheduled” in advance and guaranteed by the state at a planned level. Therefore, the financial situation of producers practically does not depend on their initiative, creativity, labor results and consumer reaction. Moreover, the initiative is even punishable: "amateur" and "unrecorded" innovation (even if very effective) can knock the enterprise out of the planned track, worsen its financial situation and lead to the replacement of the director.

The disadvantages of total centralization can be traced on the example of the former USSR. The main one is the unsatisfactory work of state property. She was badly used, taken away; equipment has not been updated for decades, resource efficiency was low, and costs were high. Mismanagement, irresponsibility and passivity of workers, indifference to any innovations reigned in the public sector.

Economic systems- this is a set of interrelated economic elements that form a certain integrity, the economic structure of society, the unity of relations that develop regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods. In modern courses on economic theory, market, command, mixed and traditional economies are usually distinguished. The best studied market economy, which is characterized as a system based on private property, freedom of choice and competition, based on personal interests, limits the role of government.

command economy is described as a system dominated by public (state) ownership of the means of production, collective economic decision-making, centralized management of the economy through state planning.

Under a mixed economy a type of society is implied, including elements of the first two systems. It is characteristic of most modern states. Traditional economy means an archaic society based on common (communal) property, subsistence economy, in which decisions are made according to traditions and customs. One of the most important features of the classification of economic systems is the form of ownership (private, public) and the method of coordinating economic activity (market, planned).

Nineteenth-century England and contemporary Hong Kong are cited as classic examples of private capitalism; capitalist "planned" economy - Nazi Germany; socialist "market" economy - Yugoslavia; socialist planned economy - the USSR.

The historical classification should include, in addition to modern ones, systems of the past and future. In this regard, the classification that distinguishes pre-industrial and post-industrial economic systems deserves attention.

Types of economic systems: - traditional; - administrative-command; - market; - mixed.

Traditional economy

The traditional economy is based on subsistence production. As a rule, it has a strong agricultural bias. The traditional economy is characterized by clan system, legalized division into estates, castes, closeness from the outside world. Traditions and unspoken laws are strong in the traditional economy. The development of the individual in the traditional economy is severely limited, and the transition from one social group to another, which is higher in the social pyramid, is practically impossible. The traditional economy often uses barter instead of money. The development of technology in such a society is very slow. Now there are practically no countries left that could be classified as countries with a traditional economy. Although in some countries it is possible to single out isolated communities leading a traditional way of life, for example, tribes in Africa leading a way of life that differs little from that of their distant ancestors. Nevertheless, in any modern society, the remnants of the traditions of the ancestors are still preserved. For example, this may refer to the celebration of religious holidays such as Christmas. In addition, there is still a division of professions into male and female. All of these customs, in one way or another, are reflected in the economy: think of the Christmas sales and the resulting sharp increase in demand.

command economy.

A command or planned economy is characterized by the fact that it centrally decides what, how, for whom and when to produce. Demand for goods and services is established on the basis of statistical data and plans of the country's leadership. A command economy is characterized by a high concentration of production and monopoly. Private ownership of the factors of production is practically excluded, or there are significant barriers to the development of private business. A crisis of overproduction in a planned economy is unlikely. The shortage of quality goods and services becomes more likely. Indeed, why build two stores side by side when you can get by with one, or why develop more advanced equipment when you can produce low-quality equipment - there is still no alternative. Of the positive aspects of the planned economy, it is worth highlighting the saving of resources, primarily human resources. In addition, a planned economy is characterized by a quick reaction to unexpected threats - both economic and military (remember how quickly the Soviet Union was able to quickly evacuate its factories to the east of the country, it is unlikely that this could be repeated in a market economy).

market economy market economy.

The market economic system, unlike the command one, is based on the predominance of private property and free pricing based on supply and demand. the state does not play a significant role in the economy, its role is limited to regulating the situation in the economy through laws. The state only makes sure that these laws are observed, and any distortions in the economy are quickly corrected by the "invisible hand of the market." For a long time, economists considered government intervention in the economy harmful and argued that the market could regulate itself without external intervention. However, the Great Depression disproved this claim. The fact is that it would be possible to get out of the crisis only if there was a demand for goods and services. And since no group of economic entities could generate this demand, demand could only come from the state. That is why, during crises, states begin to re-equip their armies - in this way they form the primary demand, which revives the entire economy and allows it to get out of the vicious circle.

. mixed economy

there are practically no countries left with only market or command or traditional economies. Any modern economy has elements of both market and planned economy and, of course, in every country there are remnants of the traditional economy. In the most important industries there are elements of a planned economy, for example, the production of nuclear weapons - who would entrust the production of such a terrible weapon to a private company? The consumer sector is almost entirely owned by private companies, because they are better able to determine the demand for their products, as well as to see new trends in time. But some goods can only be produced in a traditional economy - folk costumes, some foodstuffs, and so on, so elements of the traditional economy are also preserved.