What are tropes in literature, a brief definition. Literary tropes: types, distinctive features, use
Trails
- Trope- allegory. In a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative meaning in order to enhance the imagery of the language, artistic expressiveness speech.
Main types of trails:
- Metaphor
- Metonymy
- Synecdoche
- Hyperbola
- Litotes
- Comparison
- Periphrase
- Allegory
- Personification
- Irony
- Sarcasm
Metaphor
Metaphor- a trope that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The extended metaphor has given rise to many genres.
An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using a comparison.
A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in figuratively based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function, and
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
Metonymy
- Metonymy- a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is denoted by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and metaphor - “by similarity.” A special case of metonymy is synecdoche.
Example: “All flags are visiting us,” where flags replace countries (a part replaces the whole).
Synecdoche
- Synecdoche- a trope consisting of naming a whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.
Synecdoche is a technique consisting of transferring meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative similarity between them.
Examples:
- “The buyer chooses quality products" The word “Buyer” replaces the entire set of possible buyers.
- “The stern moored to the shore.”
A ship is implied.
Hyperbola
- Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of obvious and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the said thought, for example, “I said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.”
Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose in mountains”)
Litotes
- Litotes , litotes- a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate softening.
Litotes is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, which is why it is called differently inverse hyperbola. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse is the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.
Here is an example of litotes
Comparison
- Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them. The purpose of comparison is to identify new properties in the object of comparison that are important for the subject of the statement.
Night is a well without bottom
In comparison, there are: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place. One of distinctive features comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned.
Periphrase
- Periphrase , paraphrase , paraphrase- in the stylistics and poetics of a trope, descriptively expressing one concept with the help of several.
Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter’s creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).
In periphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “who writes these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into sleep” instead of “fall asleep,” “king of beasts” instead of “lion,” “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine", "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle. There are logical periphrases (“the author of “Dead Souls”) and figurative periphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).
Allegory
- Allegory- a conventional depiction of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
As a trope, allegory is used in fables, parables, and morality tales; in the visual arts it is expressed by certain attributes. The allegory arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore, and was developed in fine arts.The main way to depict an allegory is to generalize human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire figurative meaning
Example: allegory of “justice” - Themis (woman with scales).
Allegory of time governed by wisdom (V. Titian 1565)
The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, seasons - by means of their corresponding flowers, fruits or activities, impartiality - by means of scales and blindfolds, death - through a clepsydra and a scythe.
Personification
- Personification- a type of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used when depicting nature, which is endowed with certain human traits, for example:
And woe, woe, woe!
And grief was girded with a bast
,
My legs are tangled with washcloths.
Or: personification of the church =>
Irony
- Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (contrasted) with the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.
According to Aristotle's definition, irony is “a statement containing ridicule of someone who really thinks so.”
- Irony- the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart, smart...”. Here positive statements have negative connotations.
Sarcasm
- Sarcasm- one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic ridicule, highest degree irony, based not only on the enhanced contrast of the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate deliberate exposure of the implied.
Sarcasm is a harsh mockery that can be opened with a positive judgment, but in general always contains a negative connotation and indicates a deficiency in a person, object or phenomenon, that is, in relation to which it is happening.
Like satire, sarcasm involves the fight against hostile phenomena of reality by ridiculing them. Ruthlessness, harshness of exposure - distinctive feature sarcasm. Unlike irony, the highest degree of indignation, hatred, is expressed in sarcasm. Sarcasm is never a characteristic technique of a humorist, who, revealing what is funny in reality, always portrays it with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.
Example: your question is very smart. Are you perhaps a real intellectual?
Quests
1) Give a brief definition of the word trope .
2) What kind of allegory is depicted on the left?
3) Name as many types of trails as possible.
Thank you for your attention!!!
Every day we come across a lot of means of artistic expression; we often use them in speech ourselves, without even meaning it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; we remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; We are afraid to get a pig in a poke and exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are tropes, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in oral speech every person.
What is expressiveness?
The term "paths" comes from the Greek word tropos, which translated into Russian means "turn of speech." They are used to give figurative speech; with their help, poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Tropes in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Tropes are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.
Lexical means of the Russian language
Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate our speech and make it more expressive. Vivid paths, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.
- Antonyms- words with opposite meanings.
- Synonyms- lexical units that are close in meaning.
- Phraseologisms- stable combinations consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
- Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
- Archaisms- outdated words denoting objects or phenomena, modern analogues of which are present in human culture and everyday life.
- Historicisms- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.
Tropes in Russian (examples)
Currently, the means of artistic expression are magnificently demonstrated in the works of classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and tales. They decorate speech and give it imagery.
- Metonymy- replacing one word with another by contiguity. For example: At midnight on New Year's Eve the whole street came out to set off fireworks.
- Epithet- a figurative definition that gives an object an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
- Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: At the faculty international relations A Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar are studying.
- Personification- assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it began to rain.
- Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
- Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.
Tropes in literature (examples)
The presented means of artistic expression are used less often in speech modern man, but this does not diminish their importance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. Thus, litotes and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrasis is used to avoid repetition in or speech.
- Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: A little man works in our factory.
- Periphrase- replacing the direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star is especially yellow today (about the Moon).
- Allegory- depiction of abstract objects with images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
- Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, the size of his head.
Rhetorical figures
The idea of every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the problem posed. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, and omissions in a work of art. All these are tropes and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is encouraged, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.
A rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing issues.
The incentive offer ends. Using this figure, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be classified under the “tropes” section.
Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea", in Lermontov ("The Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It applies not to a specific person, but to an entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of art, a writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.
Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thoughts to the end and gives rise to subsequent reasoning.
Syntactic figures
Such techniques are achieved through sentence construction and include word order, punctuation; they contribute to intriguing and interesting design sentences, so every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading the work.
- Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
- Asyndeton- absence of conjunctions when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
- Syntactic parallelism- comparison of two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
- Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
- Inversion- violation of word order in a construction.
- Parcellation- deliberate division of a sentence.
Figures of speech
The paths in the Russian language, examples of which are given above, can be continued endlessly, but we should not forget that there is another conventionally distinguished section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in written and oral speech.
Table of all tropes with examples
It is important for high school students, graduates of humanities faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what types of tropes there are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary critical articles.
Lexical means and examples |
|
Synonyms | We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life. |
Antonyms | My life is nothing but black and white stripes. |
Phraseologisms | Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise they will give you a pig in a poke. |
Archaisms | Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently. |
Historicisms | Bast shoes are an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today. |
Dialectisms | There were roes (snakes) in this area. |
Stylistic tropes (examples) |
|
Metaphor | You have my friend. |
Personification | The foliage sways and dances with the wind. |
The red sun sets below the horizon. |
|
Metonymy | I've already eaten three plates. |
Synecdoche | The consumer always chooses quality products. |
Periphrase | Let's go to the zoo to see the king of beasts (about the lion). |
Allegory | You are a real ass (about stupidity). |
Hyperbola | I've been waiting for you for three hours already! |
Is this a man? A little guy, and that's all! |
|
Syntactic figures (examples) |
|
There are so many people with whom I can be sad, |
|
We'll go through the raspberries! |
|
Gradation | I think about you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray. |
Pun | Because of you, I began to drown my sadness in wine. |
Rhetorical figures (appeal, exclamation, question, silence) | When will you, the younger generation, become polite? Oh, what a wonderful day it is today! And you say that you know the material perfectly? You'll come home soon - look... |
Multi-Union | I know algebra, geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, and biology very well. |
Asyndeton | The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, diet, and banana cookies. |
Ellipsis | Not so (it was)! |
Inversion | I would like to tell you one story. |
Antithesis | You are everything and nothing to me. |
Oxymoron | Living corpse. |
The role of means of artistic expression
The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates every person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prosaic. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to study this area of the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.
Speech. Analysis of means of expression.
It is necessary to distinguish between tropes (visual and expressive means of literature) based on the figurative meaning of words and figures of speech based on the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Lexical means.
Typically, in a review of assignment B8, an example of a lexical device is given in parentheses, either as one word or as a phrase in which one of the words is in italics.
| synonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words close in meaning | soon - soon - one of these days - not today or tomorrow, in the near future |
| antonyms(contextual, linguistic) – words with opposite meanings | they never said you to each other, but always you. |
| phraseological units– stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word | at the end of the world (= “far”), tooth does not touch tooth (= “frozen”) |
| archaisms- outdated words | squad, province, eyes |
| dialectism– vocabulary common in a certain territory | smoke, chatter |
| bookstore, colloquial vocabulary |
daring, companion;
corrosion, management; waste money, outback |
Paths.
In the review, examples of tropes are indicated in parentheses, like a phrase.
Types of tropes and examples for them are in the table:
| metaphor– transferring the meaning of a word by similarity | dead silence |
| personification- likening any object or phenomenon to a living being | dissuadedgolden grove |
| comparison– comparison of one object or phenomenon with another (expressed through conjunctions as if, as if, comparative degree of adjective) | bright as the sun |
| metonymy– replacing a direct name with another by contiguity (i.e. based on real connections) | The hiss of foamy glasses (instead of: foaming wine in glasses) |
| synecdoche– using the name of a part instead of the whole and vice versa | a lonely sail turns white (instead of: boat, ship) |
| paraphrase– replacing a word or group of words to avoid repetition | author of “Woe from Wit” (instead of A.S. Griboyedov) |
| epithet– the use of definitions that give the expression figurativeness and emotionality | Where are you going, proud horse? |
| allegory– expression of abstract concepts in specific artistic images | scales – justice, cross – faith, heart – love |
| hyperbola- exaggeration of the size, strength, beauty of the described | at one hundred and forty suns the sunset glowed |
| litotes- understatement of the size, strength, beauty of the described | your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble |
| irony- the use of a word or expression in a sense contrary to its literal meaning, for the purpose of ridicule | Where are you, smart one, wandering from, head? |
Figures of speech, sentence structure.
In task B8, the figure of speech is indicated by the number of the sentence given in brackets.
| epiphora– repetition of words at the end of sentences or lines following each other | I'd like to know. Why do I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? |
| gradation– construction of homogeneous members of a sentence with increasing meaning or vice versa | I came, I saw, I conquered |
| anaphora– repetition of words at the beginning of sentences or lines following each other | Irontruth - alive to envy,
Ironpestle, and iron ovary. |
| pun– pun | It was raining and there were two students. |
| rhetorical exclamation (question, appeal) – exclamation point, interrogative sentences or a proposal with an appeal that does not require a response from the addressee | Why are you standing there, swaying, thin rowan tree?
Long live the sun, may the darkness disappear! |
| syntactic parallelism– identical construction of sentences | young people are welcome everywhere,
We honor old people everywhere |
| multi-union– repetition of redundant conjunction | And the sling and the arrow and the crafty dagger
The years are kind to the winner... |
| asyndeton– construction complex sentences or a number of homogeneous members without unions | The booths and women flash past,
Boys, benches, lanterns... |
| ellipsis- omission of an implied word | I'm getting a candle - a candle in the stove |
| inversion– indirect word order | Our people are amazing. |
| antithesis– opposition (often expressed through conjunctions A, BUT, HOWEVER or antonyms | Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin |
| oxymoron– a combination of two contradictory concepts | living corpse, ice fire |
| citation– transmission in the text of other people’s thoughts and statements indicating the author of these words. | As it is said in the poem by N. Nekrasov: “You have to bow your head below a thin epic…” |
| questionably-response form presentation– the text is presented in the form of rhetorical questions and answers to them | And again a metaphor: “Live under minute houses...”. What does this mean? Nothing lasts forever, everything is subject to decay and destruction |
| ranks homogeneous members of the sentence– listing homogeneous concepts | A long, serious illness and retirement from sports awaited him. |
| parcellation- a sentence that is divided into intonational and semantic speech units. | I saw the sun. Over your head. |
Remember!
When completing task B8, you should remember that you are filling in the gaps in the review, i.e. you restore the text, and with it both semantic and grammatical connections. Therefore, an analysis of the review itself can often serve as an additional clue: various adjectives of one kind or another, predicates consistent with the omissions, etc.
It will make it easier to complete the task and divide the list of terms into two groups: the first includes terms based on changes in the meaning of the word, the second - the structure of the sentence.
Analysis of the task.
(1) The Earth is a cosmic body, and we are astronauts making a very long flight around the Sun, together with the Sun across the infinite Universe. (2) The life support system on our beautiful ship is so ingeniously designed that it is constantly self-renewing and thus allows billions of passengers to travel for millions of years.
(3) It is difficult to imagine astronauts flying on a ship through outer space, deliberately destroying a complex and delicate life support system designed for a long flight. (4) But gradually, consistently, with amazing irresponsibility, we are putting this life support system out of action, poisoning rivers, destroying forests, and spoiling the World Ocean. (5) If on a small spaceship the astronauts will begin to fussily cut wires, unscrew screws, and drill holes in the casing, then this will have to be classified as suicide. (6) But there is no fundamental difference between a small ship and a large one. (7) The only question is size and time.
(8) Humanity, in my opinion, is a kind of disease of the planet. (9) They started, multiplied, and swarmed with microscopic creatures on a planetary, and even more so on a universal scale. (10) They accumulate in one place, and immediately deep ulcers and various growths appear on the body of the earth. (11) One has only to introduce a drop of a harmful (from the point of view of the earth and nature) culture into the green coat of the Forest (a team of lumberjacks, one barracks, two tractors) - and now a characteristic, symptomatic painful spot spreads from this place. (12) They scurry around, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste.
(13) Unfortunately, such concepts as silence, the possibility of solitude and intimate communication between man and nature, with the beauty of our land, are just as vulnerable as the biosphere, just as defenseless against the pressure of so-called technological progress. (14) On the one hand, a person, delayed by the inhuman rhythm of modern life, overcrowding, a huge flow of artificial information, is weaned from spiritual communication with the outside world, on the other hand, this external world itself has been brought into such a state that sometimes it no longer invites a person to spiritual communication with him.
(15) It is unknown how this original disease called humanity will end for the planet. (16) Will the Earth have time to develop some kind of antidote?
(According to V. Soloukhin)
“The first two sentences use the trope of ________. This image of the “cosmic body” and “astronauts” is key to understanding the author’s position. Discussing how humanity behaves in relation to its home, V. Soloukhin comes to the conclusion that “humanity is a disease of the planet.” ______ (“scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste”) convey the negative actions of man. The use of _________ in the text (sentences 8, 13, 14) emphasizes that everything said to the author is far from indifferent. Used in the 15th sentence, ________ “original” gives the argument a sad ending that ends with a question.”
List of terms:
- epithet
- litotes
- introductory words and plug-in structures
- irony
- extended metaphor
- parcellation
- question-and-answer form of presentation
- dialectism
- homogeneous members offers
We divide the list of terms into two groups: the first – epithet, litotes, irony, extended metaphor, dialectism; the second – introductory words and inserted constructions, parcellation, question-answer form of presentation, homogeneous members of the sentence.
It is better to start completing the task with gaps that do not cause difficulties. For example, omission number 2. Since the whole sentence is presented as an example, some kind of syntactic device. In a sentence “they scurry about, multiply, do their job, eating away the subsoil, depleting the fertility of the soil, poisoning the rivers and oceans, the very atmosphere of the Earth with their poisonous waste” series of homogeneous sentence members are used : verbs scurrying around, multiplying, doing business, participles eating away, exhausting, poisoning and nouns rivers, oceans, atmosphere. At the same time, the verb “transfer” in the review indicates that a plural word should take the place of the omission. In the list in the plural there are introductory words and inserted constructions and homogeneous clauses. A careful reading of the sentence shows that the introductory words, i.e. those constructions that are not thematically related to the text and can be removed from the text without loss of meaning are absent. Thus, in place of gap No. 2, it is necessary to insert option 9) homogeneous members of the sentence.
Blank No. 3 shows sentence numbers, which means the term again refers to the structure of sentences. Parcellation can be immediately “discarded”, since authors must indicate two or three consecutive sentences. The question-answer form is also an incorrect option, since sentences 8, 13, 14 do not contain a question. What remains are introductory words and plug-in constructions. We find them in the sentences: In my opinion, unfortunately, on the one hand, on the other hand.
In place of the last blank, you must substitute the term masculine, since the adjective “used” must be consistent with it in the review, and it must be from the first group, since only one word is given as an example “ original". Masculine terms – epithet and dialectism. The latter is clearly not suitable, since this word is quite understandable. Turning to the text, we find what the word is combined with: "original disease". Here the adjective is clearly used in a figurative sense, so we have an epithet.
All that remains is to fill in the first gap, which is the most difficult. The review says that this is a trope, and it is used in two sentences where the image of the earth and us, people, is reinterpreted as the image of a cosmic body and astronauts. This is clearly not irony, since there is not a drop of mockery in the text, and not litotes, but rather, on the contrary, the author deliberately exaggerates the scale of the disaster. Thus, the only thing left is possible option– metaphor, the transfer of properties from one object or phenomenon to another based on our associations. Expanded - because it is impossible to isolate a separate phrase from the text.
Answer: 5, 9, 3, 1.
Practice.
(1) As a child, I hated matinees because my father came to our kindergarten. (2) He sat on a chair near the Christmas tree, played his button accordion for a long time, trying to find the right melody, and our teacher sternly told him: “Valery Petrovich, move up!” (3) All the guys looked at my father and choked with laughter. (4) He was small, plump, began to go bald early, and although he never drank, for some reason his nose was always beet red, like a clown’s. (5) Children, when they wanted to say about someone that he was funny and ugly, said this: “He looks like Ksyushka’s dad!”
(6) And I, first in kindergarten and then at school, bore the heavy cross of my father’s absurdity. (7) Everything would be fine (you never know what kind of fathers anyone has!), but I didn’t understand why he, an ordinary mechanic, came to our matinees with his stupid accordion. (8) I would play at home and not disgrace either myself or my daughter! (9) Often getting confused, he groaned thinly, like a woman, and a guilty smile appeared on his round face. (10) I was ready to fall through the ground from shame and behaved emphatically coldly, showing with my appearance that this ridiculous man with a red nose had nothing to do with me.
(11) I was in third grade when I caught a bad cold. (12) I started getting otitis media. (13) I screamed in pain and hit my head with my palms. (14) Mom called ambulance, and at night we went to the district hospital. (15) On the way, we got into a terrible snowstorm, the car got stuck, and the driver, shrilly, like a woman, began to shout that now we would all freeze. (16) He screamed shrilly, almost cried, and I thought that his ears also hurt. (17) Father asked how long was left to the regional center. (18) But the driver, covering his face with his hands, kept repeating: “What a fool I am!” (19) Father thought and quietly said to mother: “We will need all the courage!” (20) I remembered these words for the rest of my life, although wild pain swirled around me like a snowflake in a snowstorm. (21) He opened the car door and went out into the roaring night. (22) The door slammed behind him, and it seemed to me as if a huge monster, clanging its jaws, swallowed my father. (23) The car was rocked by gusts of wind, and snow rustled down on the frost-covered windows. (24) I cried, my mother kissed me with cold lips, the young nurse looked doomedly into the impenetrable darkness, and the driver shook his head in exhaustion.
(25) I don’t know how much time passed, but suddenly the night lit up bright light headlights, and the long shadow of some giant fell on my face. (26) I closed my eyes and saw my father through my eyelashes. (27) He took me in his arms and pressed me to him. (28) In a whisper, he told his mother that he had reached the regional center, raised everyone to their feet and returned with an all-terrain vehicle.
(29) I dozed in his arms and through my sleep I heard him coughing. (30) Then no one attached any importance to this. (31) And for a long time afterwards he suffered from double pneumonia.
(32)…My children are perplexed why, when decorating the Christmas tree, I always cry. (33) From the darkness of the past, my father comes to me, he sits under the tree and puts his head on the button accordion, as if he secretly wants to see his daughter among the dressed-up crowd of children and smile cheerfully at her. (34) I look at his face shining with happiness and also want to smile at him, but instead I start crying.
(According to N. Aksenova)
Read a fragment of a review compiled on the basis of the text that you analyzed while completing tasks A29 - A31, B1 - B7.
This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Fill in the blanks with numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. If you do not know which number from the list should appear in the blank space, write the number 0.
Write down the sequence of numbers in the order in which you wrote them down in the text of the review where there are gaps in answer form No. 1 to the right of task number B8, starting from the first cell.
“The narrator’s use of such a lexical means of expression as _____ to describe a blizzard (“terrible blizzard", "impenetrable darkness"), gives the depicted picture expressive power, and such tropes as _____ (“pain circled me” in sentence 20) and _____ (“the driver began to scream shrilly, like a woman” in sentence 15), convey the drama of the situation described in the text . A device such as _____ (in sentence 34) enhances the emotional impact on the reader.”
Means of enhancing speech expressiveness. The concept of a path. Types of tropes: epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, irony, allegory, personification, periphrasis.
Trope is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative meaning in order to enhance the imagery of language and the artistic expressiveness of speech. Trails are widely used in literary works, oratory and in everyday speech.
The main types of tropes: Epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, irony, allegory, personification, periphrasis.
An epithet is a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love dearly”), a noun (“fun noise”), and a numeral (second life).
An epithet is a word or an entire expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) gain color and richness. Used in both poetry and prose.
Epithets can be expressed in different parts speeches (Mother Volga, tramp wind, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature; without them it is impossible to imagine a single work of art.
Below us with a cast-iron roar
Bridges instantly rattle. (A. A. Fet)
Metaphor (“transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a trope, word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other on the basis of their common characteristic. A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function,
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
In lexicology, a semantic connection between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarities (structural, external, functional).
Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word.
IN modern theory In metaphors, it is customary to distinguish between diaphora (a sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (a familiar, erased metaphor).
An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: “The book hunger does not go away: products from the book market increasingly turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.”
A realized metaphor involves operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the implementation of a metaphor is often comic. Model: “I lost my temper and got on the bus.”
Vanya is a real loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M.A. Bulgakov);
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withered in gold,
I won't be young anymore. (S. A. Yesenin)
Comparison
Comparison is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them. The purpose of comparison is to identify new, important, advantageous properties for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.
In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison is taking place (means of comparison), and their common feature (base of comparison, comparative feature). One of the distinctive features of comparison is the mention of both objects being compared, while the common feature is not always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.
Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.
Types of comparisons
Known different types comparisons:
Comparisons in the form comparative turnover, formed with the help of conjunctions as if, as if, exactly: “A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as the devil.” Non-union comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: “My home is my fortress.” Comparisons formed using a noun in instrumental case: “he walks like a gogol.” Negative comparisons: “An attempt is not torture.”
The faded joy of the crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin);
Below him is a stream of lighter azure (M.Yu. Lermontov);
Metonymy
Metonymy (“renaming”, “name”) is a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one way or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is designated replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.
Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on the replacement of words “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, a representative of a class instead of the whole class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa) and metaphor - “by similarity”. A special case of metonymy is synecdoche.
Example: “All flags will visit us,” where “flags” mean “countries” (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real interconnection of the replacing members, and on the other, by greater restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in a given phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word “wiring,” the meaning of which is metonymically extended from an action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.
In early Soviet literature, an attempt to make maximum use of metonymy both theoretically and practically was made by constructivists, who put forward the principle of so-called “locality” (the motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, limiting them to real dependence on the theme). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the promotion of metonymy to the detriment of metaphor is illegal: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena, not exclusive, but complementary.
Types of metonymy:
General language, general poetic, general newspaper, individual author, individual creative.
Examples:
"Hand of Moscow"
“I ate three plates”
“Black tailcoats flashed and rushed separately and in heaps here and there”
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a trope, a type of metonymy, based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another based on the quantitative relationship between them. Typically used in synecdoche:
Singular instead of plural: “Everything is sleeping - man, beast, and bird.” (Gogol);
Plural instead of singular: “We all look at Napoleons.” (Pushkin);
Part instead of whole: “Do you need anything? “In the roof for my family.” (Herzen);
Generic name instead of specific name: “Well, sit down, luminary.” (Mayakovsky) (instead of: sun);
The specific name instead of the generic name: “Take care of your penny above all else.” (Gogol) (instead of: money).
Hyperbola
Hyperbole (“transition; excess, excess; exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of obvious and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the said thought. For example: “I’ve said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.”
Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them an appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors (“the waves rose like mountains”). The character or situation portrayed may also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical and oratorical style, as a means of pathetic elation, as well as romantic style, where pathos meets irony.
Examples:
Phraseologisms and catchphrases
"sea of tears"
"fast as lightning", "lightning fast"
"as numerous as the sand on the seashore"
“We haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”
Prose
Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.
N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich
A million Cossack caps suddenly poured out onto the square. ...
...for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.
N. Gogol. Taras Bulba
Poems, songs
About our meeting - what can I say,
I waited for her, as they wait for natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of harmful consequences!
Litotes
Litota, litotes (simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate softening.
Litotes is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, which is why it is also called inverse hyperbola. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse is the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.
Many litotes are phraseological units or idioms: “snail’s pace”, “at hand”, “the cat cried for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.
Litotes can be found in folk and literary fairy tales: “Tom-thumb”, “little-man-nail”, “thumbelina-girl”.
Litota (otherwise: antenantiosis or antenantiosis) is also a stylistic figure of deliberately softening an expression by replacing a word or expression containing a statement of some attribute with an expression that denies the opposite attribute. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don’t mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “short”, “famous” - “not unknown”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe”, “good” - “not bad”. In this sense, litotes is a form of euphemism (a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions considered indecent or inappropriate.).
...and his love for his wife will grow cold
Irony
Irony (“mockery”) is a trope, while the meaning, from the point of view of what it should be, is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the obvious “meaning”. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems. Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart, smart...” Here positive statements have a negative connotation.
Forms of irony
Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the phenomenon being described.
Anti-irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows you to present the object of anti-irony as underestimated.
Self-irony is irony directed at oneself. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements may imply the opposite (positive) subtext. Example: “Where can we fools drink tea?”
Socratic irony is a form of self-irony, constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as it were, independently comes to natural logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of the ironic statement, following the premises of the “ignorant of the truth” subject.
An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows one not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith, and not to take various “generally accepted values” too seriously.
"Have you sung everything? This is the thing:
So come and dance!" (I. A. Krylov)
Allegory
Allegory (legend) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and morality. It arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore and was developed in the fine arts. The main way to depict an allegory is to generalize human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire figurative meaning.
Example: justice - Themis (woman with scales).
The nightingale is sad near the fallen rose,
sings hysterically over a flower.
But the garden scarecrow also sheds tears,
loved a rose secretly.
Aydin Khanmagomedov. Two loves
Allegory is the artistic isolation of foreign concepts with the help of specific ideas. Religion, love, soul, justice, discord, glory, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc. are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, seasons - with the help of flowers, fruits or activities corresponding to them, impartiality - through scales and blindfolds, death - through a clepsydra and a scythe.
Then with reverent relish,
then the soul of a friend in the arms,
like a lily with a poppy,
the soul kisses the heart.
Aydin Khanmagomedov. Kissing pun.
Personification
Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) is a trope, attributing properties and characteristics of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used when depicting nature, which is endowed with certain human traits.
Examples:
And woe, woe, woe!
And grief was girded with a bast,
My legs are tangled with washcloths.
Folk song
Personification was common in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folklore lyrics to the poetic works of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the creativity of the OBERIUTs.
Periphrase
In stylistics and poetics, periphrase (paraphrase, periphrase; “descriptive expression”, “allegory”, “statement”) is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept using several.
Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter’s creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).
In periphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “who writes these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into sleep” instead of “fall asleep,” “king of beasts” instead of “lion,” “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine". There are logical periphrases (“the author of “Dead Souls”) and figurative periphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).
Often, periphrasis is used to descriptively express “low” or “forbidden” concepts (“unclean” instead of “devil”, “get by with a handkerchief” instead of “blow your nose”). In these cases, the periphrasis is at the same time a euphemism. // Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: in 2 volumes - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925. T. 2. P-Ya. - Stb. 984-986.
4. Khazagerov G. G.The system of persuasive speech as homeostasis: oratory, homiletics, didactics, symbolism// Sociological journal. - 2001. - No. 3.
5. Nikolaev A. I. Lexical means of expression// Nikolaev A.I. Fundamentals of literary criticism: training manual for students of philological specialties. - Ivanovo: LISTOS, 2011. - pp. 121-139.
6. Panov M. I. Trails// Pedagogical speech science: Dictionary-reference book / ed. T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, A. K. Michalskaya. M.: Flint; Science, 1998.
7. Toporov V. N. Trails// Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary/ ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. M.: Soviet encyclopedia, 1990.
Trails
Trails
TRAILS (Greek tropoi) is a term of ancient stylistics denoting the artistic understanding and ordering of semantic changes in a word, various shifts in its semantic structure. Semasiology. The definition of T. is one of the most controversial issues already in the ancient theory of style. “Trope,” says Quintilian, “is change eigenvalue a word or a turn of phrase that results in an enrichment of meaning. Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an insoluble dispute about the genera, species, number of tropes and their systematization.”
Most theorists consider the main types of T. to be: metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche with their subtypes, i.e. T., based on the use of a word in a figurative meaning; but along with this, the number of T. also includes a number of phrases where the basic meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (connotations) in it - such as epithet, comparison, periphrasis, etc. In many cases, ancient theorists hesitate, where to classify this or that turnover - to T. or to figures. Thus, Cicero classifies periphrasis as figures, Quintilian as tropes. Leaving aside these disagreements, we can establish the following types of T., described by theorists of antiquity, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment:
1. Epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin apositum) is a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans - decorating epithet). Wed. in Pushkin: “ruddy dawn”; special attention theorists pay attention to an epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and an epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: “poor luxury”).
2. Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another for some reason common feature(tertium comparationis). Wed. from Pushkin: “youth is faster than a bird.” Disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures (see).
3. Periphrasis (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) - “a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex phrases.” Wed. Pushkin has a parodic periphrase: “The young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (vm. young talented actress). One type of periphrasis is euphemism - the replacement with a descriptive phrase of a word that for some reason is considered obscene. Wed. from Gogol: “get by with the help of a scarf.”
Unlike the T. listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unchanged basic meaning of the word, the following T. are built on shifts in the basic meaning of the word.
4. Metaphor (Latin translatio) - “the use of a word in a figurative meaning.”
The classic example given by Cicero is the “murmur of the sea.” The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5. Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - “the case when a whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole.” The classic example given by Quintilian is “stern” instead of “ship”.
6. Metonymy (Latin denominatio) - “replacement of one name for an object with another, borrowed from related and similar objects.” Wed. from Lomonosov: “read Virgil.”
7. Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) - replacement own name another, “as if a nickname borrowed from outside.” The classic example given by Quintilian is “destroyer of Carthage” instead of “Scipio”.
8. Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - “a replacement that represents, as it were, a transition from one trope to another.” Wed. from Lomonosov - “ten harvests have passed...: here, after the harvest, of course, it’s summer, after the summer, a whole year.”
These are T., built on the use of words in a figurative meaning; theorists also note the possibility of simultaneous use of a word figuratively and literally(the figure of synoikiosis) and the possibility of a combination of contradictory metaphors (T. catachresis - Latin abusio).
Finally, a series of T. is highlighted, in which it is not the main meaning of the word that changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
9. Hyperbole - exaggeration brought to the point of “impossibility.” Wed. from Lomonosov: “running, faster than wind and lightning.”
10. Litotes - an understatement expressing through a negative phrase the content of a positive phrase (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
11. Irony is the expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning. Wed. Lomonosov’s characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a timid and meek man...”
Theorists of modern times consider the three basic texts to be based on shifts in meaning—metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. A significant part of theoretical constructions in the style of the 19th-20th centuries. is devoted to the psychological or philosophical justification for the identification of these three T. (Berngardi, Gerber, Wackernagel, R. Meyer, Elster, Ben, Fischer, in Russian - Potebnya, Khartsiev, etc.). So they tried to justify the difference between T. and figures as between more and less perfect forms sensory view (Wackernagel) or between “means of visibility” (Mittel der Veranschaulichung) and “means of mood” (Mittel der Stimmung - T. Fischer). In the same regard, they tried to establish differences between individual T. - for example. they wanted to see in synecdoche the expression of “direct view” (Anschaung), in metonymy - “reflection” (Reflexion), in metaphor - “fantasy” (Gerber). The tension and conventionality of all these constructions are obvious. Since, however, the direct material of observation is linguistic facts, a number of theorists of the 19th century. turns to linguistic data to substantiate the doctrine of T. and figures; So Gerber contrasts T. as stylistic phenomena in the field of the semantic side of language - with figures as stylistic use syntactical and grammatical structure of the language; Potebnya and his school persistently point out the connection between stylistic technicalities and the range of semantic phenomena in a language (especially at the early stages of its development). However, all these attempts to find the linguistic foundations of stylistic theories do not lead to positive results with an idealistic understanding of language and consciousness; Only by taking into account the stages in the development of thinking and language can one find the linguistic foundations of stylistic phrases and figures, in particular, explain the fluidity of their boundaries as a result of the fluidity of boundaries between semantics and grammar in a language - see Semasiology, Syntax, Language. It should further be remembered that the linguistic justification of stylistic theories does not at all replace or eliminate the need for literary consideration of them as phenomena of artistic style (as the futurists tried to assert). An assessment of T. and figures as phenomena of artistic style (see) is possible only as a result of specific literary and historical analysis; otherwise, we will return to those abstract disputes about the absolute value of one or another T., which are found among the rhetoricians of antiquity; However, the best minds of antiquity assessed T. not abstractly, but in terms of their applicability in the genres of rhetoric or poetry (for example, Cicero, Quintilian).
Stylistics, Semasiology.
Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
Paths
(Greek tropos - turn, turn), speech patterns in which a word changes its direct meaning to a figurative one. Types of trails: metaphor– transfer of characteristics from one object to another, carried out on the basis of the associatively established identity of their individual characteristics (the so-called transfer by similarity); metonymy– transfer of names from subject to subject based on their objective logical connection (transfer by contiguity); synecdoche as a type of metonymy - transfer of a name from object to object based on their generic relationship (transfer by quantity); irony in the form of antiphrase or astheism - transfer of a name from object to object based on their logical opposition (transfer by contrast).
Tropes are common to all languages and are used in everyday speech. In it they are either deliberately used in the form of idioms - stable phraseological units(for example: get on your brain or pull yourself together), or arise as a result of a grammatical or syntactic error. IN artistic speech Tropes are always used deliberately, they introduce additional meanings, enhance the expressiveness of images, and draw the readers’ attention to a fragment of text that is important for the author. Tropes as figures of speech can, in turn, be emphasized by stylistic figures. Individual paths in artistic speech are developed, deployed over a large space of text, and as a result, the expanded metaphor turns into symbol or allegory. Besides, individual species tropes are historically associated with certain artistic methods: types of metonymy – with realism(type images can be considered synecdoche images), metaphor - with romanticism(in the broad sense of the term). Finally, in artistic and everyday speech, within the framework of a phrase or phrase, an overlap of tropes can occur: in the idiom he has a trained eye, the word trained is used in a metaphorical meaning, and the word eye is used as a synecdoche (singular instead of plural) and as a metonymy (instead of the word vision).
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
See what “Trails” are in other dictionaries:
TRAILS (from Greek τροπή, Latin tropus turn, figure of speech). 1. In poetics, this is the ambiguous use of words (allegorical and literal), which are related to each other according to the principle of contiguity (metonymy, synecdoche), similarity (metaphor), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (from the Greek tropos turn of speech),..1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the relationship between direct and figurative meanings words… … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Modern encyclopedia
- (Greek) Rhetorical figures of allegory, i.e. words used figuratively, allegorical meaning. Dictionary foreign words, included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
TRAILS, see Stylistics. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of publishing house Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial Board: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V. V.,... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia
Trails- (from the Greek tropos turn, turn of speech), 1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the relationship between the direct and figurative meanings of the word... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
