Ruled in France in the 18th century. History of the French revolutions. Napoleon Bonaparte's coup and establishment of the empire

France in the 18th century Beginning of the Great French Revolution

The French Revolution radically changed not only France, but the whole of Europe.

Background

In the 18th century French kings had absolute power (absolute monarchy, see lesson). The population was divided into three estates (clergy, nobility, and the rest of the unprivileged population - the third estate). The 1st and 2nd estates owned land, did not pay taxes and occupied the highest positions in the country, the third paid taxes and had limited political rights. In this situation, the peasants wanted to own land, and the bourgeoisie wanted to gain political rights.

By the end of the 18th century. The conflict between the old feudal system and the development of capitalist relations became noticeable in the country. A serious obstacle to the development of capitalist relations in the country was the dominance of traditional seigneurial relations in agriculture.

In the 1780s. A socio-economic crisis arose in France. France's external debt has reached enormous proportions. The difficult economic situation was also associated with the unsuccessful foreign policy. Thus, the Seven Years' War led to the loss of most of France's colonies. Large amounts of money were spent to support the North American colonists in their fight against the British crown. Difficult situation aggravated by a bad harvest in 1788, which led to famine.

To replenish the treasury, Louis XVI decided to impose new taxes, for which he was forced to convene the Estates General (a meeting of representatives of estates from all over the country).

Events

May 5, 1789- convocation of the Estates General (the highest class representative body). They included representatives of three estates (270 people from the nobility, 291 from the clergy, 557 from the third estate).

June 17, 1789- deputies of the third estate proclaim themselves the National Assembly. They were soon joined by some deputies from the clergy and nobility.

July 9, 1789- The National Assembly proclaimed itself the Constituent Assembly (designed to develop the Constitution of France).

Participants

Louis XVI (1754-1793) - French king from the Bourbon dynasty, reigned from 1774-1792.

Marie Antoinette - French queen, wife of Louis XVI, daughter of the Emperor of Austria.

Parallels

English revolution of the 17th century. started out the same way. Having convened parliament to collect new taxes, King Charles faced stubborn opposition. The English Parliament assumed supreme power, as did the Estates General - the National Assembly - the Constituent Assembly.

Abstract

France in the 18th century was a monarchy based on bureaucratic centralization and a standing army. The socio-economic and political regime that existed in the country was formed as a result of complex compromises developed during the long political confrontation and civil wars of the 14th-16th centuries. One of these compromises existed between royal power and the privileged classes - for the renunciation of political rights by the clergy and nobility, state power protected the social privileges of these two classes with all the means at its disposal. Another compromise existed in relation to the peasantry - during a long series of peasant wars in the 14th-16th centuries. peasants achieved the abolition of the overwhelming majority of cash taxes and the transition to natural relations in agriculture.

The third compromise existed in relation to the bourgeoisie, in whose interests the government also did a lot, maintaining a number of privileges of the bourgeoisie in relation to the bulk of the population (the peasantry) and supporting the existence of tens of thousands of small enterprises, the owners of which constituted a layer of the French bourgeoisie. However, the regime that emerged as a result of these complex compromises did not ensure the normal development of France, which in the 18th century. began to lag behind its neighbors, primarily from England. In addition, excessive exploitation increasingly armed the masses against themselves, whose interests were completely ignored by the state.

Rice. 1. Louis XVI ()

After a number of unsuccessful attempts to get out of a difficult financial situation, Louis XVI (Fig. 1) in 1787 decided to assemble a meeting of notables - influential representatives of the three classes. But the notables unexpectedly rejected the king’s proposal, saying that the issue of taxes could only be decided by the highest assembly of estates - the Estates General - which would be convened by the state officials of France in five years. When Jacques Necker became parliamentarian for the second time, he insisted that the Estates General be convened in 1789. The government, however, did not have any specific program.

The Royal Regulations of January 24, 1789, having decided to convene the Estates General on April 27, indicated the purpose of the future meeting was “the establishment of a permanent and unchangeable order in all parts of government relating to the happiness of the subjects and the welfare of the kingdom, the fastest possible healing of the diseases of the state and the elimination of all abuses”; at the same time, the king expressed the desire that “both on the extreme borders of his kingdom and in the least known villages, everyone would be provided with the opportunity to bring their desires and their complaints to his attention.” Suffrage was given to all Frenchmen who had reached the age of twenty-five and had permanent place residence and included in the tax lists (the latter restriction excluded a significant number of poor citizens from voting rights). The elections were two-level (and then sometimes three-level), that is, deputies were elected not by the population itself, but by representatives chosen by it.

On May 5, 1789, meetings of the Estates General opened in Versailles. Disputes began about the order of the meetings. The Third Estate demanded more rights for itself, declaring itself the representative of 96% of the nation. On June 17, deputies of the third estate, supported by the lower strata of the clergy and nobility, proclaimed themselves the National Assembly, inviting other deputies to join them. On June 20, deputies of the third estate gathered in the ballgame hall and took an oath not to disperse until a Constitution was drawn up. At the suggestion of Honoré Gabriel Mirabeau, the identity of the deputies was declared inviolable. The deputies of the third estate continued their meetings and attracted to their side a significant part of the representatives of the clergy and some of the representatives of the nobility.

On July 9, 1789, the National Assembly declared itself the Constituent Assembly - the highest representative and legislative body of the people. On July 11, Louis resigned Necker and ordered him to leave Paris immediately.

References

1. Vedyushkin V.A. Burin S.N. General history. History of modern times. 7th grade. - M.: 2010.
2. S. Soloviev. Well New history. - M.: 2003.
3. K. Bulychev. Secrets of the New Time. - M.: 2005.
4. The Great French Bourgeois Revolution/Rep. ed. Kucherenko G.S. - M.: USSR Academy of Sciences. INION, Institute of World History, 1987.

1. School-collection.edu.ru ().
2. Bibliotekar.ru ().
3. Hrono.ru (.
4. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen ().

Homework

1. Why was Louis XVI forced to convene the Estates General?
2. What rights did the deputies of the National Assembly seek?
3. What events went down in French history under the name “The Great Fear”?
4. What is historical significance adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen?

Page 1

The most important factor, which predetermined the entire foreign policy activity of France in the 18th century, as well as in many ways its internal policy, was the war for spanish inheritance. Let's take a closer look at this.

The reason for the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was the death of the Spanish monarch Charles II, who left no direct heirs. Louis XIV, due to the complicated dynastic relations in Spain itself, expressed the opinion that he was the heir to the Spanish crown. In fact, the war was fought not so much for Spain itself, but for its colonies - numerous American and African possessions, as well as Italian and Dutch colonies. France's receipt of such an “inheritance” implied almost unlimited global hegemony for France.

For a number of reasons, France is unable to emerge victorious from this war, and England, by destroying the Franco-Spanish fleets and conquering a number of colonies, laid the foundation for its maritime dominion. Louis XIV dies in 1714, leaving France to his four-year-old great-grandson, later Louis XV.

Thus, before French diplomacy, at the time of 1714, the following foreign policy tasks were necessary to preserve France as a great power:

To counteract the further consolidation of England’s status as “Queen of the Seas”;

Do not allow England and Austria to become too close;

And finally, whenever possible, support your traditional allies - Turkey and Sweden - in the fight against Austria.

However, under the young Louis XV, foreign policy was handled by his regent Philippe d'Orléans, the nephew of the late king. Philip, being regent, built foreign policy countries based not on the principle of expediency, but on the basis of their dynastic claims. The fact is that the regent had certain rights to the throne.

Thus, in the period from 1714 to 1726, during the regency of Philippe d'Orléans, foreign policy was marked by the following events, which were aimed not at strengthening France, but at satisfying the ambitions of the regent:

The alliance of France with its natural opponents - England and the Netherlands (1717);

The War of the French Succession (1718-1720) between Spain on one side and France, England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire. Spain lost this war, and the momentary quadruple alliance fell apart.

In 1726, Louis XV announced that he was taking power into his own hands, but in fact the government of Cardinal Andre Fleury (1653-1743) was in charge, who decided virtually all domestic and foreign policy issues until his death. The king was completely removed from government.

The main leitmotif of the foreign policy of the government of Cardinal Fleury was the policy of “non-intervention”. The Cardinal tried to prevent any clashes. But, largely contrary to the wishes of the cardinal, France was involved in two wars - for the Polish and Austrian succession.

The first of these, the War of the Polish Succession (1733-1735) was between the coalitions of Russia, Austria and Saxony on the one hand, and between Sardinia, Spain and Sardinia on the other. France, in general, achieved the weakening of Austria and annexed Lorraine to its possessions.

The second, the War of the Austrian Succession (1741-1748), was caused by an attempt by a number of countries to challenge the will of the deceased Emperor of Austria, Charles IV. In general, the war did not lead to any significant consequences in the European arena.

During the last war, Cardinal Fleury dies, and Louis XV declares independent rule of the country. The king's general inability to govern led to negative consequences.

Under the king, France participated in another war - the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), where it took the same side with Austria, its long-time strategic rival, and Russia, a relatively recent strategic rival. The main result of this war for France was the loss of its main colonies. These colonies went to England and Spain.

Until the end of the king’s life, no significant events occurred in the foreign policy of France, and the king completely withdrew from foreign and domestic politics (his phrase “after us, even a flood” became widely known).

When analyzing French foreign policy under Louis XV, scholars usually identify the following global trends:

The reign of Louis XIV's successor marks the beginning of the complete disintegration of French absolutism and the failure of its foreign policy;

We know the ancient history of the Fatherland thanks to chronicles - weather reports of the main events with an exact indication of their dates. Ancient chronicles have come down to us in copies of the 14th-18th centuries. According to the place and time of compilation, the chronicles are divided into categories: Novgorod, Suzdal, Moscow, etc. Lists of the same category are also distinguished by editions (art...

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Frankish Empire in the VIII-IX centuries.
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State agriculture in the 18th century There were 25 million people in France. 22 million - peasants who received personal freedom had plots of land, but were not its owners. The land belonged to the lords, while the peasants bore a lot of duties for it. In the 18th century Old feudal relations still remained

Industry. Trade Industrial rise, growth of manufacturing production. luxury goods: Maritime power Colonial power (plantation slavery and slave trade flourished in the North African colonies Developed maritime trade BUT Internal trade was hampered by customs borders, road taxes, lack of a unified system of measures, weights, money Expensive fabrics porcelain Jewelry

Estates The clergy serves the king with prayer The nobility is the sword 4% of the country's population The third estate is property Peasants, townspeople, artisans, bankers, Merchants, owners of factories, lawyers Louis Louis XV: “Only in my person alone resides royal power...”

By the 70s of the 18th century: A) the economic situation of France was deteriorating B) unsuccessful foreign policy (several European wars against England) C) the decline in the international authority of the country The old order, on which royal power relied, caused discontent among the broad masses

Growing discontent The peasants sought to obtain land and property The bourgeois sought to participate in governing the country (to create conditions for the development of trade and industry) The poor grumbled against the hard, half-starved life The parliament was dissatisfied with the activities of the government Enlightenment philosophers criticized the government Everyone demanded the abolition of the privileges of the first classes

France's debt rose to 140 million livres. New loans were not allowed. Tax the privileged classes? On May 5, 1789, the States General opened in the Palace of Versailles (not convened since 1614) Nobles 270 deputies Clergy 291 deputies Third Estate 600 deputies National Assembly! June 17

National Assembly July 9, 1789 Constituent Assembly (establishes a new State system - Develops a Constitution) National Assembly in the Golf Hall KING: Sacked sympathetic ministers Began to gather troops towards Paris

The king recognized the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly. Power in Paris passed to the city council (Paris Commune). The revolution approved the new banner of France (three colors meant reconciliation with the king). Louis arrived in Paris wearing a hat with a three-color cockade attached, and was given a ceremonial welcome. VICTORY? The country was gripped by peasant unrest. Peasants refused to bear taxes. Church tithes were abolished. The absolute monarchy fell. Louis XVI of Bourbon.

Constituent Assembly Supporters of change (left) Supporters of moderation and order (right) September 1791 - adoption of the Constitution Suffrage (men over 25 years old, with property qualification) All internal customs and guild system abolished Church lands declared a national treasure and put on sale Prohibition Law strikes The Constituent Assembly completed its activities

October 1, 1791 - the beginning of the work of the Legislative Assembly (deputies from the Gironde department - the Girondins were in the lead) For carrying out reforms that contributed to the development of industry and trade, For the abolition of the monarchy For the war against the enemies of the revolution 1792 - the beginning of the European war against Revolutionary France (Austria, England), military failures BETRAYAL OF THE KING AND THE RICH?

AUGUST 10, 1792 - storming of the royal palace The Legislative Assembly decided to abdicate the king and convene a new supreme body of power - the National Convention (assembly) The monarchy was overthrown Maximilian Robespierre An influential political club meeting in the Church of St. Jacoba - Jacobins

Paris was threatened by foreign armies Mass mobilization into the army “The Fatherland is in danger!” On September 20, 1792, in the battle near the village of Valmy, French troops repulsed the attacks of the Prussian army and forced it to retreat. This victory marked the beginning of the liberation of the country from invaders

In 1715, when Louis XIV passed away, the devastating consequences of his ambitious domestic and foreign policies became clear. The wars, which raged almost continuously for 25 years, so depleted the state treasury that the successors of the Sun King experienced an acute shortage of funds until the very end of the 18th century. The population was declining. In lean years, famine began. By the end of his many-year reign, the monarch had completely lost popularity.

On the other hand, during this era France acquired a special status in European culture. The authoritarian methods of government and the luxury of the Palace of Versailles became models for other European monarchs for many decades. French style interior design has become fashionable everywhere. French writers took their place at the forefront of European literature. The French royal dynasty ascended to the Spanish throne. Among the states of the Atlantic region, France gradually became the main rival of Great Britain.

The following year after the death of Louis XIV, the French authorities began to improve the financial situation. Scottish financier John Law convinced the regent Duke of Orleans to reform the banking system. In 1705, his work “Money and Trade. A Proposal for Providing the People with Money” was published - one of the first works devoted to the theory of monetarism. According to Law, the establishment of a state bank that printed bank notes was supposed to help improve the economy. With the active support of the Duke of Orleans, Banque Générale was created in 1716. Initially, Banque Générale was a private bank, but three-quarters of its assets consisted of government treasury notes. IN next year to promote the development of the French colony in Louisiana, Law acquired the Mississippi trading company (Mississippi Company) and reorganized it into a joint stock company, which was called the Western Company (Compagnie d'Occident). The French government granted the Western Company a monopoly on trade with the West Indies and North America In 1718, Banque Générale became a state bank.

By absorbing companies trading with the East Indies, China and Africa, the Western Company attracted a growing number of investors. In 1720, the Western Company was merged with the bank. Law also controlled the mint and the tax department. He was given the power to decide on the issue of shares and print banknotes. At the first stage the enterprise was very successful. During this time, Law printed notes not backed by gold, which were used to purchase shares of the Western Company and pay dividends. Thanks to the speculative rush, Law's shares increased in price 36 times - from 500 to 18,000 livres. At the end of 1720, the French government was forced to admit that the banknotes issued by the Banque Générale were not fully backed by specie. The system created by John Law collapsed when holders of banknotes en masse wanted to exchange them for coins. The value of issued banknotes fell by half. By the end of 1720, the Duke of Orleans dismissed Law from all his posts, and all his initiatives in the field of financial policy were eliminated. The Scottish financier left France for Venice, where he died in poverty nine years later. Negative consequences reforms of the banking system caused deep distrust of the French authorities towards national banks with the right to print banknotes. Banque de France was founded in 1800, far behind other European countries.

After the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, France and Great Britain cooperated with each other sporadically in various areas international politics and economics, which was largely due to the similarity of their views political leaders– Cardinal Fleury and Robert Walpole. Both politicians believed that the world is a necessary condition growth national welfare. Walpole's resignation in 1742 and Fleury's death in 1743 brought an end to a short period of peaceful coexistence. Hostility returned to relations between the two powers. In March 1744, France declared war on Great Britain and began preparing plans for invasion - the French authorities supported the Young Pretender, Charles Edward Stuart. However, the French fleet, badly damaged by the storm, was unsuitable for the implementation of these plans, and the following year the French army carried out other tasks - France invaded the Austrian Netherlands. At the Battle of Fontenoy, which took place in May 1745, French troops under the command of Moritz, Count of Saxony, defeated the combined forces of Great Britain, Hanover, Austria and Denmark, led by the son of the British monarch, the Duke of Cumberland.

The army of the Duke of Cumberland moved to the aid of the fortress of Tournai, besieged by the French. Without lifting the siege, the French repelled the enemy's onslaught and launched a counter-offensive. Allied casualties were approximately 14,000. Building on his success, the Count of Saxony captured the entire territory of the Austrian Netherlands by the end of 1746. For most of this campaign he did not engage British forces: in October 1745, British troops and the Duke of Cumberland himself returned to the opposite side of the English Channel to take part in the fighting in Scotland.

In the long term, the successes of the Count of Saxony in the campaign of 1745-1746 were of less importance than the dominance of the English fleet in the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Shortly after the official declaration of war in 1744, British warships began to interfere with French merchant ships sailing to India and the West Indies. Locking the French transport ships in the harbors, the English fleet paralyzed the coastal shipping system, which was widely used in those days in the absence of a developed road system.

In 1748, after four years of confrontation at sea, France was ready to conclude a peace treaty. This time, the territories that changed state affiliation were located mainly overseas. In June 1745, during the War of the Austrian Succession, a detachment of New Englanders captured Fort Louisbourg, located at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and considered the most impregnable of the American fortresses. Louisbourg was of strategic importance to French Canada. In 1746, British Madras was occupied by French troops. Under the terms of the second Peace of Aachen, concluded in 1748, both territories restored their original statehood. Moreover, this peace treaty delayed the onset of the inevitable colonial conflict between the two leading European powers. According to the Prussian monarch Frederick II, France and Great Britain considered themselves the leaders of two warring camps, one of which all kings and princes were obliged to join. Less than ten years later, European rulers again had to decide on the choice of camp: the Seven Years' War began.

From the end of the 17th century until the beginning of this new conflict, the alignment of geopolitical forces did not change. significant changes, however, by 1763, when the war ended, the situation had changed dramatically. To a lesser extent, these changes affected the situation in India, and to a greater extent - the situation in the North American colonies. The success of the British forces, culminating in the capture of Quebec in September 1759, was followed by significant concessions made by France under the terms of the peace treaty signed in 1763. The entire territory between the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, which was originally claimed by France, as well as historical lands, were annexed to British possessions New France, lying on the banks of the St. Lawrence River. These agreements marked the end of the French empire in continental America. Only New Orleans and the surrounding territories still belonged to France. The signing of this treaty was one of the turning points in American history, providing Great Britain with a dominant position on the continent. The lands between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, also the subject of French territorial claims, became Spanish possessions and were subsequently annexed by the United States.

Louis XV, who had been on the throne for about sixty years, passed away in 1774. During his reign, the state financial system was in a deplorable state. Devastated during the military campaigns of his great-grandfather Louis XIV, the state treasury was actively used to finance the largest armed conflicts - the War of the Spanish Succession, the War of the Austrian Succession and Seven Years' War. The French monarchy was ill-prepared to carry out the necessary reforms. Formally, the kings had absolute power, but neither Louis XV nor his grandson Louis XVI, who ascended the throne in 1774, were able to channel this power into effective reform activities.

The political and socio-economic structure that existed in France during this era was called the Old Order (or Old Regime - ancien régime). The old regime was characterized by class, the preservation of the ancient privileges of the aristocracy, little development of commodity-money relations, and the predominance of natural exchange. Among the features government system there was a practice of selling positions in the government apparatus. Significant funds spent on acquiring this or that position were recouped by the “rent” that officials received until the end of their days. Such a system led to increased corruption and lack of control among officials, and the formation of power structures with duplicative powers. Another distinctive feature of the Ancien Regime were the so-called lettres de cachet (letters with a seal). They were royal orders for extrajudicial arrests and indefinite detention without giving reasons. However, this royal privilege did not at all contribute to limiting the numerous privileges of the nobility.

Representatives of the first and second estates - the nobility and officials - were exempt from most taxes. The government's attempts to change the current situation by more evenly distributing the tax burden among the population invariably encountered resistance from the aristocracy, whose interests were expressed in the Paris Parliament. The dissatisfaction of parliament was the reason for the resignation of two finance ministers who carried out the reforms - Turgot and Calonne. These actions, aimed at preserving feudal privileges, were harshly criticized by Enlightenment philosophers. The measures taken by the monarch to suppress the arbitrariness of the aristocracy did not find support either. The court of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette was considered immoral and depraved. This opinion became even more widespread after the famous diamond necklace fraud case.

In 1772, Louis XV decided to give his favorite Marie Jeanne Becu, Countess DuBarry, a gift worth approximately 2 million livres. He turned to Parisian jewelers with a request to make a necklace that surpasses all other similar jewelry in beauty and luxury. It took the craftsmen several years to acquire diamonds suitable for this purpose. Meanwhile, Louis XV died and the Countess of DuBarry was expelled from the royal court. The jewelers hoped that their work would interest Queen Marie Antoinette, but she twice refused the necklace.

In 1784, an adventurer named Jeanne de Luz de Saint-Rémy de Valois, having become the mistress of Cardinal Louis de Rohan, corresponded with him, passing off letters of her own composition as messages from the queen. Jeanne claimed that she personally knew Marie Antoinette. The cardinal, who was out of favor, hoped to regain the favor of Marie Antoinette through correspondence. As the tone of the supposed royal messages became softer, the cardinal became confident in the success of his enterprise. The culmination of this adventure was organized by Zhanna in the garden Palace of Versailles a night meeting between Louis de Rohan and a Parisian prostitute posing as the queen. Soon the “queen” approached the cardinal with an offer to become an intermediary in the secret purchase of the necklace, declaring that she did not want to act openly in times of need. Having agreed on a price with the jewelers and agreed on a payment schedule, de Rohan brought the necklace to Jeanne's house, from where it was delivered to London. The plot was soon discovered, de Rohan went to the Bastille, but was later acquitted. Zhanna was convicted, but soon escaped from prison. In her absence, her husband went to serve his life sentence. Despite not being established during trial Marie Antoinette's innocence in the theft of the necklace caused significant damage to the queen's popularity and the prestige of the royal court.

Under these conditions, the confrontation between the king and the privileged classes resulted in a crisis, while neither side aroused sympathy among the general population. The ill-considered and imprudent actions of the king’s enemies led to a deepening of the crisis. The Royal Treasury was on the verge of bankruptcy, thanks in part to the costs of supporting the Americans who opposed the British monarch. The Parisian Parliament declared that tax legislation would come into force only if it was voted for by the Estates General, an estate-representative institution that had not been convened since 1614. Under pressure from Parliament, the royal ministers announced the convening of the Estates General at Versailles on May 1, 1789.

The history of France, which is located in the very center of Europe, began long before the appearance of permanent human settlements. Convenient physical and geographical position, proximity to seas, rich reserves natural resources contributed to France throughout its history being the “locomotive” of the European continent. And this is how the country remains today. Occupying leading positions in the European Union, the UN and NATO, the French Republic remains in the 21st century a state whose history is being created every day.

Location

Country of the Franks, if with Latin language translate the name of France, located in the region of Western Europe. The neighbors of this romantic and beautiful country are Belgium, Germany, Andorra, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland, Italy and Spain. The coast of France is washed by the warm Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. The territory of the republic is covered with mountain peaks, plains, beaches, and forests. Hidden among the picturesque nature are numerous natural monuments, historical, architectural, cultural attractions, ruins of castles, caves, and fortresses.

Celtic period

In the 2nd millennium BC. Celtic tribes, whom the Romans called Gauls, came to the lands of the modern French Republic. These tribes became the core of the formation of the future French nation. The Romans called the territory inhabited by the Gauls or Celts Gaul, which was part of the Roman Empire as a separate province.

In the 7th-6th centuries. BC, Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor sailed to Gaul on ships and founded colonies on the Mediterranean coast. Now in their place there are cities such as Nice, Antibes, Marseille.

Between 58 and 52 BC, Gaul was captured by the Roman soldiers of Julius Caesar. The result of more than 500 years of rule was the complete Romanization of the population of Gaul.

Others occurred during Roman rule important events in the history of the peoples of future France:

• In the 3rd century AD, Christianity entered Gaul and began to spread.
• Invasion of the Franks, who conquered the Gauls. After the Franks came the Burgundians, Alemanni, Visigoths and Huns, who completely put an end to Roman rule.
• The Franks gave names to the peoples who lived in Gaul, created the first state here, and founded the first dynasty.

The territory of France, even before our era, became one of the centers of permanent migration flows, which ran from north to south, west to east. All these tribes left their mark on the development of Gaul, and the Gauls adopted elements of various cultures. But it was the Franks who had the greatest influence, who managed not only to drive out the Romans, but also to create their own kingdom in Western Europe.

The first rulers of the Frankish kingdom

The founder of the first state in the vastness of the former Gaul is King Clovis, who led the Franks during their arrival in Western Europe. Clovis was a member of the Merovingian dynasty, which was founded by the legendary Merovey. He is considered a mythical figure, since 100% evidence of his existence is not found. Clovis is considered the grandson of Merovey, and was a worthy successor to the traditions of his legendary grandfather. Clovis led the Frankish kingdom in 481, and by this time he had already become famous for his numerous military campaigns. Clovis converted to Christianity and was baptized in Reims, which happened in 496. This city became the center of baptism for the rest of the kings of France.

Clovis's wife was Queen Clotilde, who together with her husband revered Saint Genevieve. She was the patroness of the capital of France - the city of Paris. The following rulers of the state were named in honor of Clovis, only in the French version this name sounds like “Louis” or Ludovicus.

Clovis The first division of the country between his four sons, who did not leave any special traces in the history of France. After Clovis, the Merovingian dynasty began to gradually fade away, since the rulers practically did not leave the palace. Therefore, the stay in power of the descendants of the first Frankish ruler is called in historiography the period of lazy kings.

The last of the Merovingians, Childeric the Third, became the last king of his dynasty on the Frankish throne. He was replaced by Pepin the Short, so nicknamed for his small stature.

Carolingians and Capetians

Pepin came to power in the mid-8th century, and founded a new dynasty in France. It was called Carolingian, but not on behalf of Pepin the Short, but his son, Charlemagne. Pepin went down in history as a skillful manager who, before his coronation, was the mayor of Childeric the Third. Pepin actually ruled the life of the kingdom and determined the directions of the kingdom's foreign and domestic policies. Pepin also became famous as a skilled warrior, strategist, brilliant and cunning politician, who during his 17-year reign enjoyed the constant support of the Catholic Church and the Pope. Such cooperation ruling house Franks ended with the head of the Roman Catholic Church prohibiting the French from choosing representatives of other dynasties to the royal throne. So he supported the Carolingian dynasty and kingdom.

The heyday of France began under Pepin’s son, Charles, who spent most of his life in military campaigns. As a result, the territory of the state increased several times. In 800 Charlemagne became emperor. He was elevated to a new position by the Pope, who put the crown on the head of Charles, whose reforms and skillful leadership brought France to the TOP of the leading medieval states. Under Charles, the centralization of the kingdom was laid and the principle of succession to the throne was defined. The next king was Louis the First the Pious, the son of Charlemagne, who successfully continued the policies of his great father.

Representatives of the Carolingian dynasty were unable to maintain a centralized unified state, therefore in the 11th century. Charlemagne's state fell apart into separate parts. The last king of the Carolingian family was Louis the Fifth; when he died, Abbot Hugo Capet ascended the throne. The nickname appeared due to the fact that he always wore a mouth guard, i.e. the mantle of a secular priest, which emphasized his ecclesiastical rank after ascending to the throne as king. The reign of representatives of the Capetian dynasty is characterized by:

• Development of feudal relations.
• The emergence of new classes of French society - lords, feudal lords, vassals, dependent peasants. Vassals were in the service of lords and feudal lords, who were obliged to protect their subjects. The latter paid them not only through military service, but also tribute in the form of food and cash rent.
• There were constant religious wars, which coincided with the period of the Crusades in Europe, which began in 1195.
• Capetians and many French were participants crusades, participating in the defense and liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.

The Capetians ruled until 1328, bringing France to a new level of development. But the heirs of Hugo Capet failed to stay in power. The Middle Ages dictated its own rules, and a stronger and more cunning politician, whose name was Philip VI from the Valois dynasty, soon came to power.

The influence of humanism and the Renaissance on the development of the kingdom

During the 16th-19th centuries. France was ruled first by the Valois and then by the Bourbons, who belonged to one of the branches of the Capetian dynasty. The Valois also belonged to this family and were in power until the end of the 16th century. After them the throne until the mid-19th century. belonged to the Bourbons. The first king of this dynasty French throne was Henry the Fourth, and the last was Louis Philippe, who was expelled from France during the period of change from monarchy to republic.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, the country was ruled by Francis the First, under whom France completely emerged from the Middle Ages. His reign is characterized by:

• He made two trips to Italy to present the kingdom's claims to Milan and Naples. The first campaign was successful and France gained control of these Italian duchies for some time, but the second campaign was unsuccessful. And Francis the First lost territories on the Apennine Peninsula.
• Introduced a royal loan, which in 300 years would lead to the collapse of the monarchy and the crisis of the kingdom, which no one could overcome.
• Constantly fought with Charles the Fifth, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.
• France's rival was also England, which at that time was ruled by Henry the Eighth.

Under this king of France, art, literature, architecture, science and Christianity entered into new period development. This happened mainly due to the influence of Italian humanism.

Humanism was of particular importance for architecture, which is clearly visible in the castles built in the Loire River valley. The castles that were built in this part of the country to protect the kingdom began to turn into luxurious palaces. They were decorated with rich stucco, decor, changed interior interior, which was distinguished by luxury.

Also, under Francis the First, book printing arose and began to develop, which had a huge influence on the formation of the French language, including the literary one.

Francis I was replaced on the throne by his son Henry II, who became the ruler of the kingdom in 1547. The policy of the new king was remembered by his contemporaries for his successful military campaigns, including against England. One of the battles, which is written about in all history textbooks dedicated to France in the 16th century, took place near Calais. No less famous are the battles of the British and French at Verdun, Toul, Metz, which Henry recaptured from the Holy Roman Empire.

Henry was married to Catherine de Medici, who belonged to the famous Italian family of bankers. The Queen ruled the country with her three sons on the throne:

• Francis II.
• Charles the Ninth.
• Henry the Third.

Francis reigned for only a year and then died of illness. He was succeeded by Charles the Ninth, who was ten years old at the time of his coronation. He was completely controlled by his mother, Catherine de Medici. Karl was remembered as a zealous champion of Catholicism. He constantly persecuted Protestants, who became known as Huguenots.

On the night of August 23-24, 1572, Charles the Ninth gave the order to purge all Huguenots in France. This event was called St. Bartholomew's Night, since the murders took place on the eve of St. Bartholomew. Two years after the massacre, Charles died and Henry III became king. His opponent for the throne was Henry of Navarre, but he was not chosen because he was a Huguenot, which did not suit most of the nobles and nobility.

France in the 17th-19th centuries.

These centuries were very turbulent for the kingdom. The main events include:

• In 1598, the Edict of Nantes, which was issued by Henry the Fourth, ended the religious wars in France. Huguenots became full members of French society.
• France took an active part in the first international conflict - Thirty Years' War 1618-1638
• The kingdom experienced its "golden age" in the 17th century. under the reign of Louis the Thirteenth and Louis the Fourteenth, as well as the “gray” cardinals – Richelieu and Mazarin.
• The nobles constantly fought with the royal power to expand their rights.
• France 17th century constantly faced dynastic strife and internecine wars, which undermined the state from within.
• Louis the Fourteenth dragged the state into the War of the Spanish Succession, which caused the invasion of foreign countries into French territory.
• Kings Louis the Fourteenth and his great-grandson Louis the Fifteenth had enormous influence on the creation strong army, which made it possible to conduct successful military campaigns against Spain, Prussia and Austria.
• At the end of the 18th century, the Great French Revolution began in France, which caused the liquidation of the monarchy and the establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon.
• At the beginning of the 19th century, Napoleon declared France an empire.
• In the 1830s. An attempt was made to restore the monarchy, which lasted until 1848.

In 1848 in France, as in other countries of Western and Central Europe, a revolution broke out, which was called the Spring of Nations. The consequence of the revolutionary 19th century was the establishment of the Second Republic in France, which lasted until 1852.

Second half of the 19th century. was no less exciting than the first. The Republic was overthrown, replaced by the dictatorship of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who ruled until 1870.

The Empire was replaced by the Paris Commune, which brought about the establishment of the Third Republic. It existed until 1940. At the end of the 19th century. The country's leadership pursued an active foreign policy, creating new colonies in different regions of the world:

• North Africa.
• Madagascar.
• Equatorial Africa.
• West Africa.

During the 80s - 90s. 19th centuries France constantly competed with Germany. The contradictions between states deepened and aggravated, which caused the separation of countries from each other. France found allies in England and Russia, which contributed to the formation of the Entente.

Features of development in the 20-21st centuries.

Started in 1914. First world war, became a chance for France to regain lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany, under the Treaty of Versailles, was forced to give this region back to the republic, as a result of which the borders and territory of France acquired modern contours.

During the interwar period, the country actively participated in the Paris Conference and fought for spheres of influence in Europe. Therefore, she actively took part in the actions of the Entente countries. In particular, together with Britain, it sent its ships to Ukraine in 1918 to fight against the Austrians and Germans, who were helping the government of the Ukrainian People's Republic drive the Bolsheviks out of its territory.

With the participation of France, they signed peace treaties with Bulgaria and Romania, which supported Germany in the First World War.

In the mid-1920s. were installed diplomatic relations With Soviet Union, signed a non-aggression pact with the leadership of this country. Fearing the strengthening of the fascist regime in Europe and the activation of far-right organizations in the republic, France tried to create military-political alliances with European states. But France was not saved from the German attack in May 1940. Within a few weeks, Wehrmacht troops captured and occupied all of France, establishing a pro-fascist Vichy regime in the republic.

The country was liberated in 1944 by the forces of the Resistance Movement, the underground movement, and the allied armies of the United States and Britain.

The Second War hit the political, social and economic life of France hard. The Marshall Plan and the country's participation in economic European integration processes, which in the early 1950s, helped to overcome the crisis. unfolded in Europe. In the mid-1950s. France abandoned its colonial possessions in Africa, granting independence to the former colonies.

Political and economic life stabilized during the presidency of Charles de Gaulle, who led France in 1958. Under him, the Fifth Republic of France was proclaimed. De Gaulle made the country a leader on the European continent. Progressive laws were passed that changed social life republics. In particular, women received the right to vote, study, choose professions, and create their own organizations and movements.

In 1965, the country elected its head of state for the first time by universal suffrage. President de Gaulle, who remained in power until 1969. After him, the presidents in France were:

• Georges Pompidou – 1969-1974
• Valeria d'Estaing 1974-1981
• Francois Mitterrand 1981-1995
• Jacques Chirac – 1995-2007
• Nicolas Sarkozy - 2007-2012
• Francois Hollande – 2012-2017
• Emmanuel Macron – 2017 – until now.

After World War II, France developed active cooperation with Germany, becoming with it the locomotives of the EU and NATO. The government of the country since the mid-1950s. develops bilateral relations with the USA, Britain, Russia, countries of the Middle East, Asia. The French leadership provides support to former colonies in Africa.

Modern France is an actively developing European country, which is a member of many European, international and regional organizations, influences the formation of the global market. Internal problems are present in the country, but the well-thought-out successful policy of the government and the new leader of the Republic, Macron, is helping to develop new methods of combating terrorism, the economic crisis, and the problem of Syrian refugees. France is developing in accordance with global trends, changing social and legal legislation so that both the French and migrants feel comfortable living in France.