A textbook for independent work of students for specialties. Logical errors in syntactic constructions

Syntactic norms of a language are the norms for constructing phrases and sentences.
Such norms are related, for example,

with choice of noun case(not seeing the error is not seeing the error). Normatively, transitive verbs when negated require the placement of the noun in R.p., i.e. the normative option would be not to see errors,

word order(The novel created by Lermontov gives an idea of the hero of our time). The normative participial phrase is placed either before or after the word being defined, i.e. the correct options will be: The novel created by Lermontov gives an idea of the hero of our time or the novel created by Lermontov gives an idea of the hero of our time;

using participial and adverbial phrases(Having arrived to work in small town, people advised him to visit the Turkins family). According to the rules, the gerund denotes the action of the subject, i.e. should be written: When Startsev came to work in a small town, people advised him to visit the Turkins family;

homogeneous members of the sentence: Chekhov was a famous prose writer and short story writer.
Normatively, it is impossible to combine generic and specific concepts as homogeneous members: the word prose writer is generic (broader in meaning) in relation to the word short story writer, i.e. I had to write: Chekhov was a famous prose writer.

building a complex sentence The first thing I want to draw attention to is the economic situation. By syntactic norms the predicate expressed by a noun is used in Im.p., i.e. The correct sentence would be: The first thing I want to draw attention to is the economic situation

Types of Syntax Errors

word order violation:

The stands display posters about the writer’s speeches in German, French, Czech, Polish languages. (Need: The stands display posters in German, French, Czech, Polish about the writer’s speeches.) In the first version, the incorrect word order created ambiguity,

violation of management standards:

a) the use of a controlled word in a case other than that required by the controlling word:
The results we have achieved are shown in Table No. 1.
(The short participle shown requires that the controlled word be in V.p.) Correct option: The results we have achieved are shown in table No. 1)

b) violation of control with synonymous words - confidence in victory. Synonymous words confidence - faith require the word to be expressed in different cases: confidence (in what?) in victory, faith (in what?) in victory;

c) violation of control with homogeneous members of the sentence - covers up and indulges bad inclinations. Homogeneous members of the sentence require different cases from the controlled word: covers (what?) bad inclinations and indulges (what?) them;

d) stringing of cases - has a list compiled by the agent. The use of a chain of dependent words in the same case creates ambiguity: has a list compiled by the agent).

errors in the use of homogeneous members of the sentence:

a) incorrect combination of materially heterogeneous concepts as homogeneous members:

educational and long-term task;

specific and generic concepts: oranges and fruits;

overlapping concepts: youth and girls;

noun and infinitive form of the verb: I wish you good luck and stay with us;

participial and participial phrases: giving all his strength and striving...;

participial phrase and attributive clause: who passed the work and received...;

b) ambiguity due to the possibility of assigning one of the homogeneous members to another series:

The listeners wished the writer relief from illness and health.;

due to the incompatibility of one of the homogeneous members with other words: surround with attention and help (you can: surround with attention, you cannot - surround with help);

V) misuse prepositions and conjunctions with homogeneous members of the sentence:

children's complex on the Black Sea and the Moscow region - needed: on the Black Sea and in the Moscow region; I read not only the books, but also took notes on them, it is necessary: not only read, but also….

errors when using participial phrases:

a) incorrect form of the participle (type, tense, voice or case form are not taken into account): along the path drawn by the great Glinka (in this case the case form of the participle is incorrect: along the path (which?) drawn;

b) incorrect word order: The edited manuscript by the editor was lying on the table. Needed: A manuscript edited by an editor... or a manuscript edited by an editor.

incorrect use of participial phrase:

a) the type of participle is not taken into account:

Approaching the river, we stopped our horses and rushed into the water. Need: Having approached the river, we stopped the horses and rushed into the water.

b) it is not taken into account that the action of the gerund refers to the action of the subject:

Running to the station, the train had already left. Arriving in the city, it was still dark. Need: When we ran up to the station, the train had already left. When we arrived in the city, it was still dark.

errors when constructing a complex sentence:

a) cluttering the sentence with similar subordinate clauses:

He suggested that his readers had misunderstood him, saying that he had a completely different interpretation of events. Necessary: He suggested that the readers misunderstood him, because he presented a completely different interpretation of events.

b) diversity of parts of a complex sentence:

It is necessary to remember that you need to: 1) leave space for notes, 2) be sure to include footnotes, 3) place the list of references in alphabetical order. Need: It is necessary to remember that you need to: 1) leave space for notes, 2) be sure to include footnotes, 3) place the list of references in alphabetical order.

c) displacement of the structure:

The main thing the speaker insisted on was taking into account the addressee factor. Need: The main thing the speaker insisted on was taking into account the addressee factor.

d) incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words:

But nevertheless, we must say. Necessary: But nevertheless we must say.

e) incorrect word order in a complex sentence:

In front of us were the horses of the Cossacks, whose muzzles were covered in foam. Need: In front of us were Cossack horses, whose muzzles were covered in foam.

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Logical errors in syntactic constructions.

When constructing syntactic constructions, it is sometimes observed inconsistency between premise and consequence . So, at the entrance exam in literature, a girl writes: I love Moscow very much! And how can I not love her, after all, I myself am a Tambov... And the young man explained the action of Pushkin’s heroine in the novel “Eugene Onegin”: After Lensky’s death in a duel, Olga had no choice but to marry a hussar. The beginning of such phrases sets us up for one thing (we think that a Muscovite is writing an essay; we expect that Olga will mourn the groom inconsolably), but the end of the sentence is exactly the opposite of its expected completion.

A group of interconnected independent sentences forms a special syntactic unit more high order - complex syntactic whole.

Meaningful relations that unite individual sentences into a complex syntactic whole are reinforced by various means: repetition of words from the previous sentence, use of personal and demonstrative pronouns, adverbs (then, then, then, there, so, etc.), conjunctions (but, however, so, etc.), introductory words indicating the connection of thoughts ( so, therefore, firstly, secondly, on the contrary, finally, etc.), as well as the order of words in sentences, the intonation of parts and the whole, etc.

Inconsistency between grammatical and semantic movement speeches can be illustrated with an example from the already cited work of N.V. Gogol. He describes his characters using the technique of parallelism:

Ivan Ivanovich has an extraordinary gift of speaking extremely pleasantly. Lord, how he speaks!.. Like a dream after a swim. Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, is more silent... Ivan Ivanovich is thin and tall; Ivan Nikiforovich is a little lower, but extends in thickness. Ivan Ivanovich's head looks like a radish with its tail down; Ivan Nikiforovich's head on a radish with his tail up...

...Ivan Ivanovich gets very angry if he gets a fly in the borscht: he then loses his temper and throws the plate, and the owner gets it. Ivan Nikiforovich is extremely fond of swimming and, when he sits up to his neck in the water, he orders a table and a samovar to be placed in the water, and he really likes to drink tea in such coolness.

Ivan Ivanovich shaves his beard twice a week; Ivan Nikiforovich once. Ivan Ivanovich is extremely curious. God forbid, if you start telling him something, you won’t tell him! If he is dissatisfied with something, he immediately lets you notice it. It is extremely difficult to tell from Ivan Nikiforovich's appearance whether he is happy or angry; although he will be happy about something, he will not show it. Ivan Ivanovich is of a somewhat timid nature. Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.

Compliance with the laws of logic

1. Law of Identity

The subject of thought within one argument must remain unchanged. The law of identity requires that in the process of reasoning one knowledge about a subject should not be replaced by another. This law is directed against such shortcomings in speech as uncertainty and vagueness of reasoning. Often these shortcomings become the cause of such a logical error as “substitution of the thesis”: having started to talk about one thing, the speaker, in the process of reasoning, unnoticed for himself, begins to talk about something else. For example:

Tremors continue in the Pamir Mountains. Today at 2:25 am Moscow time, residents were awakened by a new earthquake. Pamir is a mountainous country in Central Asia. Highest point Pamir 7495 m (from newspapers).

The first sentences of this message speak of an earthquake. It would be logical to continue the information by indicating the epicenter of the earthquake, the destruction and casualties (if there were any). But the author talks about the Pamirs, the subject of conversation has become different: the law of identity has been violated.

2. Law of contradiction

Two statements cannot be true at the same time, one of which affirms something, and the other denies it. Here's an example:

According to the results of the competition in the high pole vault, S. Bubka achieved the highest results. Athletes from another sports society showed no less good results.

The statements contained in this message are contradictory: the first of them states that one athlete achieved the highest results, the second states that other athletes achieved the same results.

3. Law of the excluded middle.

Its main meaning is as follows: if there are two contradictory judgments about an object, then one of them is true and the other is false. For example, two such propositions cannot be true at the same time: All students passed test work during. But Ivanov did not write it and did not submit it to the teacher.

4. Law of sufficient reason.

To recognize a judgment as true, you need to substantiate your point of view, prove the truth of the propositions put forward, observing the consistency and argumentation of statements. Thus, the definition should not be too narrow or too broad; it should indicate only the essential features of an object or phenomenon, and the list should be exhaustive. For example, the definition of a book - a non-periodical text book publication cannot be considered complete, since it does not indicate the difference this term from the term brochure. It should be added: over 48 pages.

When constructing syntactic constructions, sometimes there is a discrepancy between the premise and the consequence. So, on the entrance exam in literature, a girl writes: I love Moscow very much! And how can I not love her, after all, I myself am from Tambov... And the young man explained the action of Pushkin’s heroine in the novel “Eugene Onegin”: After Lensky's death in a duel, Olga had no choice but to marry a hussar. The beginning of such phrases sets us up for one thing (we think that a Muscovite is writing an essay; we expect that Olga will mourn the groom inconsolably), but the end of the sentence is exactly the opposite of its expected completion.

An individual sentence usually has only relative semantic completeness; a group of sentences conveys the content of the statement much more fully. Such a group of interconnected independent sentences forms a special syntactic unit of a higher order - a complex syntactic whole.

Semantic relationships that unite individual sentences into a complex syntactic whole are reinforced by various means: repetition of words from the previous sentence, the use of personal and demonstrative pronouns, adverbs (then, then, then, there, so etc.), unions (but, however, so etc.), introductory words indicating the connection of thoughts (so, therefore, firstly, secondly, on the contrary, finally etc.), as well as the order of words in sentences, the intonation of parts and the whole, etc.

An example of a complex syntactic whole, in which different means of combining independent sentences are used, is an excerpt from the story “Hadji Murad” by Leo Tolstoy:

When the next day Hadji Murat came to Vorontsov, the prince's reception room was full of people. There was also yesterday’s general with a bristly mustache, in full uniform and with decorations, who had come to take his leave; there was also a regimental commander who was threatened with legal action for abuses of the regiment's food supply. There was a rich Armenian, patronized by Doctor Andreevsky, who owned vodka and was now trying to renew the contract. There, all in black, was the widow of a murdered officer, who had come to ask for a pension or to place her children in the government account. There was also a ruined Georgian prince in a magnificent Georgian suit, who had procured for himself the abolished church estate. There was a bailiff with a large package, which contained a project about a new method of conquering the Caucasus. There was one khan, who appeared only to tell the house that he had been with the prince. Everyone waited in line and one by one were led into the prince’s office by a handsome blond young adjutant.

In this passage, the first sentence forms the beginning, the last - the ending. They are held together into a complex syntactic whole by the remaining sentences, which are connected by parallelism of structure and repeated words was here. Such a connection within a complex syntactic whole is called parallel.

However, the correct construction of a complex syntactic whole, observing all the grammatical features of the parallel connection of its parts, does not yet guarantee consistency in the development of thought. The development of thought must go in one direction, “failures” are unacceptable: comparison of incomparables, illogical comparisons.

The discrepancy between the grammatical and semantic movement of speech can be illustrated by an example from the already cited work of N.V. Gogol. He describes his characters using the technique of parallelism:

Ivan Ivanovich gets very angry if he gets a fly in the borscht: he then loses his temper and throws the plate, and the owner gets it. Ivan Nikiforovich is extremely fond of swimming and, when he sits up to his neck in water, he orders a table and a samovar to be placed in the water, and he really likes to drink tea in such coolness (emphasis added by us. - I.G.).

The combination of structural parallelism and logical failure creates a comic effect.

There is an even greater semantic dependence of simple sentences on each other as part of a complex syntactic whole with a chain connection between individual statements. In this case, each new sentence “picks up” the content of the previous one, developing the author’s idea. The close connection of individual sentences is emphasized by pronouns, repetition of words and other grammatical devices. For example, I.S. Turgenev in the novel “Rudin”:

The house of Daria Mikhailovna Lasunskaya was considered almost the first in the entire province. Built according to Rastrelli’s drawings, in the style of the last century, it stood majestically on the top of a hill, at the foot of which one of the main rivers of central Russia flowed. Daria Mikhailovna herself was a noble and rich lady, the widow of a privy councilor... She belonged to high society and was reputed to be a somewhat strange woman, not entirely kind, but extremely intelligent. In her youth she was very pretty. Poets wrote poems to her, young people fell in love with her, important gentlemen trailed after her. But twenty-five or thirty years have passed since then, and not a trace of the former charms remains.

With a chain connection of sentences as part of a complex syntactic whole, they “grow together” so much that it is often impossible to exclude one of them. Try (for the sake of experiment) to omit the third or fourth and fifth sentences, and the entire passage will lose its meaning, the speech will become illogical.

The combination of individual sentences into a complex syntactic whole must correctly reflect the train of thought. The connection between sentences and complex syntactic wholes, their sequence must be logically justified. If this is not the case, then the chain connection of individual sentences will not connect disparate thoughts. On the contrary, stringing together random fragmentary statements will only emphasize the illogicality of the speech flow. A classic example of such meaningless chatter is the performance of Chekhov's hero Nyukhin in the scene “On the dangers of tobacco.” Here is an excerpt from this work.

By the way, I forgot to tell you that at my wife’s music school, in addition to managing the housekeeping, I also teach mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, history, solfeggio, literature, etc. My wife charges a special fee for dancing, singing and drawing, although I also teach dancing and singing. Our music school is located in Pyatisobachy Lane, at number thirteen. And my daughters were born on the thirteenth...

My wife has seven daughters... No, it seems six are to blame... (Briskly.) Seven!.. I lived with my wife for thirty-three years, and, I can say, these were best years of my life, not just the best, but in general. They passed, in a word, like one happy moment; in fact, damn them completely.

Despite the external grammatical correctness of speech, the sequence of thoughts is broken here: the speaker contradicts himself, jumps from one thought to another, and his speech becomes chaotic. Isn’t it surprising that mathematics, physics, chemistry, etc. are taught at a music school; the speaker does not remember how many daughters he has (however, he says: “My wife has seven daughters,” which is also illogical). Calling the years he lived with his wife the best of his life, he immediately adds: not that they are the best, but in general. And right there in his speech there are incompatible assessments - They flowed by... like one happy moment And Damn them completely. Everything is illogical and absurd, although the speaker did not violate the structural syntactic rules for constructing sentences. On the contrary, his speech is emotional, but it lacks logic and clarity of thought.

In contrast to parody texts, we will give a classic example of a complex syntactic whole, built according to all the laws of grammar and logic. The beginning of the famous story by I.A. Bunin provides an excellent example of such a complex syntactic structure:

A gentleman from San Francisco - no one remembered his name either in Naples or Capri - was traveling to the Old World for two whole years, with his wife and daughter, solely for the sake of entertainment.

He was firmly convinced that he had every right to rest, to pleasure, to a long and comfortable journey, and who knows what else. His reason for such confidence was that, firstly, he was rich, and secondly, he had just started life, despite his fifty-eight years. Until that time, he had not lived, but only existed, although very well, but still pinning all his hopes on the future. He worked tirelessly, and finally saw that a lot had already been done, that he was almost equal to those whom he had once taken as a model, and decided to take a break.

The people to whom he belonged had the custom of beginning the enjoyment of life with a trip to Europe, India, and Egypt. He decided to do the same. Of course, he wanted to reward himself first of all for his years of work; however, he was also happy for his wife and daughter. His wife had never been particularly impressionable, but all older American women are passionate travelers. As for the daughter, a girl of old age and slightly sickly, the journey was absolutely necessary for her: not to mention the health benefits, don’t there be happy encounters during travel? Here sometimes you sit at a table or look at the frescoes next to a billionaire.

Syntactic errors consist of incorrect construction of phrases, violation of the structure of simple, complicated and complex sentences.

Errors in the structure of phrases:

1. Violation of agreement with the main word in gender, number and case of the dependent word, expressed by an adjective, participle, ordinal number, pronoun: “This summer I was in the steppe Trans-Volga region.”

2. Impaired control. Errors in unprepositioned management (wrong choice of preposition): “If you touch a birch tree on a hot day, you will feel the cool trunk.”

3. Wrong choice of case with a correctly chosen preposition: “He looked like a deathly tired man.”

4. Omission of a preposition: “After a hasty lunch, I sat at the helm and drove (?) to the field.”

5. Using the unnecessary preposition “Thirst for fame.”

6. Omission of the dependent component of the phrase: “He gets into the hot cabin again, turns the steering wheel shiny from his palms again, (?) drive.”

Errors in the structure and meaning of the sentence:

1. Violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate: “But neither youth nor summer last forever,” “The sun had already set when we returned.”

2. Lack of semantic completeness of the sentence, violation of its boundaries: “Once upon a time during the war. A shell hit the poplar.”

3. Syntactic ambiguity: “Their (the girls’) dream came true, they (the fishermen) returned.”

4. Violation of the type-temporal correlation of verbs in the sentence: “Grinev sees Pugachev getting into the carriage.”

Errors in a simple two-part sentence:

Subject:

– Pronominal duplication of the subject: “Children sitting on an old boat with its keel overturned, they are waiting for their father.”

– Violation of agreement between the subject and the pronoun replacing the subject in another sentence: “Apparently, there is a storm at sea, so it is full of dangers.”

Predicate:

– Errors in the construction of the predicate: “Everyone was happy.”

– Violation of the agreement of the predicate in gender and number with the subject, expressed collective noun, quantitative-nominal phrase, interrogative and indefinite pronoun: “My mother and I stayed at home,” “A sheaf of rays of the sun entered the room.”

– Pronominal duplication of the addition: “Many books can be read several times.”

Definition:

– Incorrect use inconsistent definition: “On the right hang a lamp and my portrait from the kindergarten.”

- A conglomeration of agreed upon and inconsistent definitions relating to one member of the sentence: “The huge, wonderful world of life in our country and our peers opens up in millions of books.”

– Incorrect choice of morphological form of the circumstance: “I study my lessons on the table” (at the table).

Errors in one-part sentences:

1. The use of two-part structures in place of one-part ones.

2. Use of participial phrases in impersonal offer: “When I saw the dog, I felt sorry for it.”

Sentences with homogeneous members:

1.Usage different parts speeches in the role of homogeneous members of the sentence: “I like the room because it is bright, large, clean.”

2. Inclusion in a series of homogeneous terms of words denoting heterogeneous concepts: “When it’s spring and a clear day, the sun illuminates my whole room.”

3. Incorrect use of coordinating conjunctions to connect homogeneous members: “The boy was big-faced, but serious.”

4. Incorrect attachment of logically heterogeneous secondary members to one main member: “There are books in the closet, newspapers and glassware on the shelves.”

5. Errors in coordinating homogeneous subjects with the predicate: “Anxiety and melancholy froze in her eyes.”

6. Violations in the area of homogeneous predicates:

a) the use of different types of predicates as homogeneous: “The sea after the storm is calm, gentle and plays with the rays of the sun”;

b) violation of the uniform design of components nominal predicates: the use of different case forms of the nominal part of homogeneous compound nominal predicates: “Their father was an experienced fisherman and a brave sailor”; joining homogeneous verbal predicate an addition that is controlled by only one of the predicates: “Everyone is really waiting and worried about the soldiers”; the use of short and long forms of adjectives and participles in the nominal part: “My room has recently been renovated: whitewashed and painted.”

7. Association of members and units different offers on a homogeneous basis: “Mushrooms grow under the birch tree, berries grow, snowdrops bloom in the spring.” “The children were waiting for their father and when his boat would appear.”

Sentences with introductory words and introductory constructions:

1. Wrong choice introductory word: “The girls peered intensely into the distance of the sea: a boat would probably appear on the horizon.”

2. Using an introductory word that leads to ambiguity: “According to the fishermen, there was a storm at night, but now it’s calm.”

3. Using the introductory sentence as an independent one: “A book is a source of knowledge. As many say."

Offers with separate members:

1. Violation of word order in sentences with participial phrases.

– Separation of the participial phrase from the word being defined: “But again a misfortune happened to the tree: its low branches were cut off.”

– Inclusion of the defined word in the participial phrase: “Girls have their eyes fixed on the sea.”

2. Violation of the rules for constructing participial phrases.

– Construction of a participial phrase following the example of a subordinate clause: “The picture shows a girl who has just gotten up.”

- Using a participial phrase instead of an adverbial phrase: “And every time we returned back, we sat down under a poplar tree and rested.”

3. Errors in sentences with isolated circumstances expressed by adverbial verbs: Resting in a chair, the painting “March” hangs in front of me.

Methods of transmitting direct speech. Direct and indirect speech:

3. Direct mixing indirect speech: Grandfather said that in childhood they had this law: on birthdays we gave only what we made with our own hands.”

4. Errors when introducing quotes: K. Paustovsky said that “A person who loves and knows how to read is a happy person.”

Complex sentences:

1. Violation of the logical-grammatical connection between the parts of a complex sentence: “My father did not forget this story for a long time, but he died.”

2. Use of a pronoun in the second part of a complex sentence, leading to ambiguity: “May hopes come true and they will return.”

3. Errors in using complex conjunctions:

a) connective - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “Yesterday there was a storm, and today everything was calm.”

b) adversatives - to connect parts of a complex sentence in the absence of adversative relations between them: “We have a birch tree growing in our yard, but buds are also swelling on it”;

c) double and repeated: “Either a bird has landed on the water, or the wreckage of a broken boat is floating on the sea”;

d) unjustified repetition of conjunctions: “And suddenly the girls saw a small black dot, and they had hope”;

e) unsuccessful choice of alliances: “Mitrasha was just over ten years old, but her sister was older.”

Complex sentences:

1. Inconsistency between the type of the subordinate clause and the meaning of the main one: “But they will still wait for their father, since the fishermen must be waited on the shore.”

2. Using composition and subordination to connect parts in a complex sentence: “If a person does not play sports, he ages quickly.”

3. Making structures heavier by “stringing” subordinate clauses: “The sail appeared in the sea as happy news that the fishermen were all right and that the girls would soon be able to hug their parents, who were delayed at sea because there was a strong storm.”

4. Omission of a necessary demonstrative word: “Mom always scolds me for throwing my things around.”

5. Unjustified use of a demonstrative word: “I have an assumption that the fishermen were delayed by the storm.”

6. Incorrect use of conjunctions and allied words when choosing them correctly:

a) the use of conjunctions and allied words in the middle of a subordinate clause: “There is a TV on the nightstand in the room, on which I watch entertainment programs after school”;

b) violation of the agreement of the conjunctive word in the subordinate clause with the replaced or attributive word in the main clause: “On two shelves - fiction, which I use when preparing for lessons.”

7. Use of the same type of subordinate clauses when consistent subordination: “Walking along the shore, I saw two girls sitting on an overturned boat, which was lying upside down near the shore.”

8. Using a subordinate clause as an independent clause: “The girls are worried about their relatives. That’s why they look so sadly into the distance.”

Non-union complex sentence:

1. Violation of the unity of construction of homogeneous parts in a non-union complex sentence: “The picture shows: early morning, the sun is just rising.”

2. Decomposition of parts of a non-conjunctive complex sentence into independent sentences: “The girls are dressed simply. They are wearing summer cotton dresses. The eldest has a scarf on her head.”

3. Simultaneous use of non-union and allied connections: “The girls’ clothes are simple: the older ones with a scarf on their heads, in a blue skirt and gray blouse, the younger ones without a scarf, in a purple dress and a dark blue blouse.”

Complex sentence with different types of connections:

1. Violation of the order of parts of the sentence: “The waves are still foaming, but they calm down near the shore; the closer to the horizon, the darker the sea; and therefore the girls have hope that their father will return.”

2. Using pronouns that create ambiguity: “We see that the girl's bed is not made, and she confirms that the girl just got up.”

Content

1. Introduction

1.1 Modern speech situation……………………….………………..…2

1.2 Language and speech………………………………………………….………………...3

1.2.1 Speech, its features………………………………………………………………. ..4

1.2.2 Subject and tasks of practical stylistics……………………...….5

1.2.3 Speech culture………………………………………………………......6

2. Accuracy and clarity of speech

2.1 Accuracy of word usage…………………….………………..……7

2.2 Stylistic assessment of dialectisms, jargons………………..…8

2.3 Stylistic assessment of borrowed words……………………….….9

2.4 Paronymous words and speech accuracy……………………………………….11

2.5 Accuracy of inflection and form formation……………………….13

2.6 Clarity of syntactic constructions………………………….……....14

3. Conclusion………………………...………………………………………………………....15

4. Literature…………………..……………………………………………………….16

Modern speech situation

Language is a powerful means of regulating people’s activities in various areas, therefore the study of speech behavior modern personality, understanding how a person masters the richness of language, how affectively he uses it, is a very important and urgent task.

Every educated person must learn to evaluate speech behavior - his own and that of his interlocutors, and relate his speech actions to a specific communication situation.

Today the speech of our contemporaries attracts everyone more attention journalists, scientists of various specialties (linguists, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists), writers, teachers, it becomes the subject of heated discussions among ordinary Russian speakers. Feeling speech problems, they try to answer the question of what is causing the state of speech culture that worries many. The eternal Russian questions “what to do?” and “who is to blame?” are quite natural in relation to the Russian language and Russian speech.

In the in-depth study “Russian language of the end of the 20th century (1985-1995)” an attempt was made to highlight the most significant features of the Russian language of the end of the century. It notes:

“The events of the second half of the 80s - early 90s are similar to a revolution in their impact on society and language. The state of the Russian language of our time is determined by a number of factors.

1. The composition of participants in mass and collective communication is sharply expanding: new segments of the population are joining the role of speakers, the role of writing in newspapers and magazines. Since the late 80s, thousands of people with different levels of speech culture have had the opportunity to speak publicly.

2. In means mass media censorship and auto-censorship, which previously largely determined the nature of speech behavior, are sharply weakened.

3. Personality in speech increases. Faceless and addressless speech is replaced by personal speech and acquires a specific addressee. The biological nature of communication, both oral and written, is increasing.

4. The sphere of spontaneous communication, not only personal, but also oral public, is expanding. People no longer give or read pre-written speeches. They say.

5. Important parameters of the flow of oral forms of mass communication are changing: the possibility of the speaker directly addressing the listeners and feedback from the listeners to the speakers is created.

6. Situations and genres of communication are changing both in the field of public and personal communication. The rigid boundaries of official public communication are loosened. Many new genres of oral public speech are being born in the field of mass communication. The dry radio and TV announcer has been replaced by a presenter who thinks, jokes, and expresses his opinion.

7. Psychological rejection of the bureaucratic language of the past (the so-called Newspeak) is sharply increasing.

8. There is a desire to develop new means of expression, new forms of imagery, new types of addresses to strangers.

9. Along with the birth of the names of new phenomena, there is a revival of the names of those phenomena that return from the past, prohibited or rejected in the era of totalitarianism” (Russian language of the end of the 20th century. M., 1996).

Freedom and emancipation of speech behavior entail a loosening of language norms, an increase in language variability (instead of one acceptable form of a language unit, different options are acceptable).

Language and speech

Linguists second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, overcoming the universalism and dogmatism of naturalists (Schleicher), they delved more and more into the study of individual linguistic facts and brought their research to the speech of an individual person. Success new science- psychology - contributed to these aspirations - to bring research to the individual. These views, in their extreme manifestation, went as far as denying language as the property of the collective and calling into question the existence of languages.

Thus, A. A. Shakhmatov believed that “real existence has the language of each individual; the language of a village, city, region, people turns out to be a well-known scientific fiction, for it is composed of facts of language that are part of certain territorial or tribal units of individuals.” (Shakhmatov A. A. Essay on modern Russian literary language, 4th ed. M., 1941. p.59.)

Supporters of such views, according to the Russian proverb, “can’t see the forest for the trees.” W. Humboldt (1767-1835) wrote about this: “... in reality, language always develops only in society, and a person understands himself insofar as experience has established that his words are also understandable to others.” (Humboldt V. On the differences in the structure of human languages and its influence on the spiritual development of the human race, see: Zvegintsev V. A. History of linguistics of the 19th-20th centuries in essays and extracts. 3rd bridle. M., 1964. Part 1 . p. 97)

This thought in Marx’s formulation sounds as follows: language is “... existing for other people and only thereby existing also for myself” (Marx K. German Ideology // Marx K. and Engels F. Works 2 ed. T. 3. P. 29.), and if language is always the property of the collective, then it cannot represent a mechanical sum individual languages. Rather, the speech of each speaker can be considered as a manifestation of a given language in the conditions of one or another life situation. But the individual characteristics in the speech of each person are also an indisputable fact.

This raises a very important problem: languages of speech. These concepts are often confused, although it is clear that; for example, physiologists and psychologists deal only with speech, in pedagogy it is important to talk about the development and enrichment of students’ speech, in medicine - about speech defects, etc.; in all these cases, “speech” cannot be replaced by “language”, since we are talking about a psychophysiological process.

Speech, its features

If language is a system of signs and symbols, then speech is the process of using language. Speech is the realization of language, which reveals itself only through speech.

In linguistics, speech is understood as specific speaking that occurs over time and is expressed in audio form (including internal pronunciation - inner speech) or written form. Speech also includes the products of speaking in the form of a speech work (text), recorded in memory or writing. The differences between speech and language are as follows.

Firstly, speech is specific, unique, relevant, unfolds in time, and is realized in space. Let us remember the ability of some speakers, for example, Cuban leader F. Castro or Soviet President M. Gorbachev, to talk for hours. The collected works of many writers number dozens of volumes.

Secondly, speech is active, linear, and strives to combine words in the speech stream. Unlike language, it is less conservative, more dynamic, and mobile. Thus, with the announcement of openness and freedom of speech in our country, the manner of presenting information, especially about political leaders and social processes, has noticeably changed. If earlier messages were kept strictly in an official style, now rarely does anyone write about these processes and leaders without slight irony.

Third, speech, as a sequence of words involved, reflects experience talking man, determined by the context and situation, variable, can be spontaneous and disordered. We often come across examples of such speech in everyday life and at work.

Speech, on the one hand, using already known linguistic means, fundamentally depends on the language. At the same time, a number of speech characteristics, such as tempo, duration, timbre, volume level, articulatory clarity, accent, do not have to do with language direct relationship. Of particular interest is the use in speech of words that are not found in the language. To study and enrich the Russian language in linguistics, the following areas are identified and developed: “Stylistics of the Russian language” and “Culture of speech”.

Subject and tasks of practical stylistics

The term “practical stylistics” is found in V.V. Vinogradova, G.O. Vinokura, K.I. Bylinsky and other researchers of stylistic problems. It is also used in foreign science... Manuals on the normative stylistics of national languages are being created. Attempts are being made to define the concept of normativity, linguistic (and stylistic) norm.

The concept of norm is important for any literary language. Even in fictional style, where freedom of choice is widely used linguistic means and the uniqueness of the writer’s individual manner is reflected, a complete departure from the national norm is impossible, because “language is truly work of art cannot deviate far or significantly from the basis of the common language, otherwise it will cease to be generally intelligible.”

In practical stylistics, where lexical and grammatical synonymy plays a huge role, the norm is “the set of the most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) means of language for serving society, which develops as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic ) from among those coexisting, present, newly formed or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in the Broad sense, assessment of these elements.”

The normative nature of practical stylistics brings it closer to that broad section (of philological science, which is called “culture of speech.” If we consider that, in addition to the objective historical study of the speech life of society in a certain era, the task of this philological discipline is to reveal the norms of the literary language in all “levels” of the language system and the establishment on a scientific basis of rules for using language, then we can talk about the direct connection of some problems of stylistics and problems of speech culture. So G.O. Vinokur wrote: “The task of stylistics ... is to teach the members of a given one. social environment actively and expediently handling the linguistic canon, dissecting the linguistic tradition and such an attitude that would allow speakers to actively use all the elements contained within its broad framework, depending on the specific social and everyday situation, on the purpose that each given act implies individual speaking."

Characteristics of the concept “Culture of speech”

The concept of speech culture is closely related to the literary language. The ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and clearly, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one’s speech, but also to influence listeners, mastery of speech culture is a unique characteristic of professional suitability for people of various professions: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, managers, journalists.

Speech culture is important for everyone who, by the nature of their work, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, conducts business negotiations, educates, takes care of health, and provides various services to people.

What is speech culture?

Speech culture is understood as mastery of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the selection and organization of linguistic means are carried out, allowing, in a certain communication situation and subject to communication ethics, to ensure the necessary effect in achieving the communication goals.

Speech culture contains three components: normative, communicative and ethical.

Speech culture presupposes, first of all, the correctness of speech, i.e., compliance with the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers (speakers and writers) as an “ideal” or model. The linguistic norm is the central concept of speech culture, and the normative aspect of speech culture is considered one of the most important.

However, the culture of speech cannot be reduced to a list of prohibitions and definitions of “right and wrong.” The concept of “speech culture” is associated with the patterns and characteristics of the functioning of language, as well as with speech activity in all its diversity. It also includes the provided language system the ability to find specific content to express in every real situation verbal communication new language form.

Speech culture develops skills in the selection and use of linguistic means in the process of verbal communication, helps to form a conscious attitude towards their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks. The choice of linguistic means necessary for a given goal is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech culture. The famous philologist, major specialist in speech culture G. O. Vinokur wrote: “Every goal has its own means, this should be the slogan of a linguistically cultural society.”

Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, therefore it is important to know the basic communicative qualities of speech and take them into account in the process of speech interaction.

In accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of speech culture, native speakers must speak functional varieties language, as well as focus on the pragmatic conditions of communication, which significantly influence the optimal choice and organization of speech means for a given case.

The ethical aspect of speech culture prescribes knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical standards of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; addressing “you” and “you”; choosing a full or abbreviated name, form of address, etc.).

On the use of speech etiquette great influence have extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in the speech act (purposeful speech act), their social status, the nature of the relationship between them (official, informal, friendly, intimate), time and place of verbal interaction, etc.

The ethical component of the culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication and condemns speaking in “raised tones.” Accuracy and clarity of speech are important.

Accuracy of word usage

Accuracy and clarity of speech are interrelated. However, the speaker (writer) should be concerned about the accuracy of the statement, and the listener (reader) evaluates CLARITY.

We put our thoughts into words. For speech to be accurate, words should be used in full accordance with the meanings assigned to them in the language. L.N. Tolstoy jokingly remarked: “If I were a king, I would make a law that a writer who uses a word whose meaning he cannot explain will be deprived of the right to write and receive 100 blows of the rod.”

Finding the only necessary word in a text requires the writer to exert creative forces and tireless work. This work is sometimes reflected in manuscripts, allowing us to become familiar with the lexical substitutions made by the author, polishing the style of the work. For example, in the draft of the story by A.S. Pushkin’s “Dubrovsky” we find the following correction: “Members (of the court) met him (Troekurov) with expressions of [deep humiliation, deep devotion] deep servility” - the last word most expressively characterized the behavior of the officials bribed by Troekurov, and the writer left it in the text.

The stylistic editing of the writers in the manuscript reflects the last stage of work on the text, and what kind of work preceded this, how many drafts were written and then destroyed, how many times the author uttered this or that phrase “to himself” before writing it down on paper - you can talk about this just guess.

A careless attitude to the choice of words in our everyday speech causes annoying lexical errors, for example: Spring has come, the martens will soon have an inheritance (meaning offspring); I decided to become an officer because I want to continue the family dynasty (instead of: tradition).

In such cases, they talk about using a word without taking into account its semantics (that is, meaning). Such speech errors cause illogicality and even absurdity of speech: And our Far Eastern birches stand in their wedding shroud (the author confused the shroud and veil). Such “slips of the tongue” are explained by false associations (these are associative errors).

Ambiguity in a statement may arise when using polysemantic words and homonyms, if the context reveals a meaning not intended by the author. For example: The growth of young figure skaters is stimulated through demonstration performances. It would be better to say: By participating in demonstration performances, young figure skaters improve their skills. The sports commentator did not take into account the possible distortion of the meaning of the following phrase: You see Gavrilov on the screen in a beautiful combination.

Inaccurate word usage is due to inattention or poor speech culture author. But sometimes they deliberately do not want to use this or that word in order to veil the negative meaning of the statement. They say he fantasizes instead of lies, accepted gifts instead of took bribes, etc. Let us recall an episode from the story of A.I. Kuprin "Inquiry":

“Ask him, did he take boots from Esipaki?

The second lieutenant was again convinced that he stole his inexperience and cowardice, because out of some bashful and delicate feeling he could not pronounce the real word.”

Words and expressions that soften the rough meaning of speech are called euphemisms (from the gr. ei - good, phemi - - I say). The euphemism of speech is often explained by the author’s desire to dull the critical edge of the statement when describing negative phenomena.

The wrong choice of word can cause anachronism - a violation of chronological accuracy when using words associated with a certain historical era. For example: In ancient Rome, plebeians dissatisfied with the laws organized rallies (the word rally was coined much later, including in England).

Stylistic assessment of dialectisms, jargons

Our speech is subject to various influences, in particular impoverishment and clogging. Various weeds spoil our speech.” It could be dialect words, jargon and vulgarisms, unjustified borrowings. All of them require an objective stylistic assessment, both in book texts and in colloquial speech.

The Russian language is rich in folk dialects: a resident of the northern regions can utter a phrase that even Voronezh or Orel will not understand. And only the Moscow ambition, which underlies the Russian literary language, will be understandable to all Russian people. One writer, in order to show the uniqueness of local Russian dialects, wrote an “elegy” in the Vyatka dialect, the content of which must be “translated” into Russian, because it contained many incomprehensible dialectisms (this is the name for words used in local dialects, that is, dialects) .

Slang vocabulary denotes concepts that already have names in the common language. Jargon is a type of colloquial speech used by a certain circle of native speakers, united by common interests, occupations, and position in society. In modern Russian, youth jargon, or slang, is distinguished (from the English slang - words and expressions used by people of certain professions or age groups). Many words and expressions have come from slang into colloquial speech: cheat sheet, cram, tail (academic debt), swim (do poorly on an exam), fishing rod (satisfactory grade), etc.

The emergence of many jargons is associated with the desire of young people to express their attitude to a subject or phenomenon more clearly and emotionally. Hence such evaluative words: amazing, awesome, cool, laugh, go crazy, get high, donkey, plow, sunbathe, etc. All of them are common only in oral speech and are often absent from dictionaries.

What is the assessment of jargon? Of course, the one who studied Russian with L.S. Pushkina, M.Yu. Lermontova, L.N. Tolstoy, will not admire the jargon. In addition, jargon is incomprehensible to the uninitiated, and this creates the ground for misunderstandings. However, in the oral speech of young people, jargon is ineradicable; they give it liveliness, sometimes an ironic tint. But the scope of their use is narrow: it is oral speech, and stylistically reduced, non-literary.

Stylistic assessment of borrowed words

You can often hear that foreign words “clog” the Russian language and therefore you need to “fight” them. Indeed, in colloquial speech we often use “fashionable” foreign words out of place. The language of advertising is filled with Americanisms; there are many unjustified borrowings in magazines and newspapers.

The Russian language has always been open to expanding its vocabulary from foreign language sources. Borrowings from ancient languages (Greek, Latin), Turkisms, Gallicisms, words of Dutch, German, English origin, Polonisms, Ukrainianisms and others were mastered by the Russian language in different historical eras, without damaging its national identity, but only enriching it and expanding its boundaries . However, too much influx foreign words During certain periods, our language caused concern among figures of Russian culture.

In the late 80s - 90s, the influx of foreign words into the Russian language increased especially strongly due to changes in the field political life, economics, culture, ideology.

We are seeing an unprecedented expansion of foreign language vocabulary in all areas. She took leading positions in the political life of the country, getting used to new concepts: president, parliament, inauguration, speaker, impeachment, electorate, department, municipality, legitimate, consensus, etc.; foreign language terms have become dominant in the most advanced branches of science and technology: computer, display, file, driver, modem, monitoring, player, pager, fax, as well as in financial and commercial activities: auditor, barter, broker, business, dealer, investment, conversion, sponsor, trust, holding, etc. Words are invading the cultural sphere: bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, showmen, digests, etc. Everyday speech quickly accepts new realities with their non-Russian names - speaker, Twix, hamburger, cheeseburger, Sprite, Coca, marketing, supermarket, shopping, etc. Even vernacular and jargons replenish their vocabulary with Americanisms, most often distorted, mutilated - gerla, shopnik , face, shoes, bucks, greens, teen (abbreviated teenager). The pursuit of a new, “beautiful”, sonorous, and sometimes incomprehensible to the uninitiated name leads to the fact that the individual peasant wants only to be a farmer, the extortionist bandit is called nothing more than a racketeer (or even more sonorously - a racketeer), and a murderer - killer.

Dictionaries of foreign words do not have time to master new borrowings, so a reader who does not speak English often finds himself helpless when encountering incomprehensible words in newspapers and magazines, replete with foreign language terms: exclusive (exceptional), press release (special newsletter for media workers, published government agency), consensus (lat. agreement).

Observing all the sad consequences of the “total Americanization” of our language, it is difficult to maintain objectivity in the ongoing debate about the appropriateness of foreign borrowings in the modern Russian language. And yet, voices are heard in defense of non-Russian words that are becoming entrenched in communication.

In our life in recent years new phenomena enter, and with them new words. Similar processes of vocabulary enrichment due to borrowings occur in all modern languages. In our time, the flow of new ideas, things, information, technologies requires quick naming of objects and phenomena, forces us to involve already existing foreign names in the language, and not to expect the creation of original words on Russian soil. Scientific, technical, military, financial, banking, sports vocabulary all over the world is striving for internationalization. The desire for scientific and technological progress and civilization is reflected in the language. In part, the Russian language dictionary is being aligned to the international standard. How much this will change the appearance of the Russian language, whether it will enrich it or “spoil” it, time will tell.

And yet you shouldn’t get carried away in foreign words, because many new borrowings are incomprehensible, so we need to speak more simply, in pure Russian.

Paronyms and speech accuracy

Paronyms (from the Greek Para - “near”, “past” and onyta - “name”) are words similar in sound, but not the same in meaning. The words that make up the ferry series, as a rule, are correlated with each other in logical and semantic terms, which can cause them to shift in speech. The semantic similarity of paronyms arises, as a rule, on the basis of word-formation kinship: these are words with the same root (alien and alien, noisy, noisy and noisy). However, sometimes there are paronyms that do not have a general meaning (for example, the similarity of the words turkey - Indian was used by the children's writer V. Dragunsky to create a comic effect: the girl Alenka, having smeared her face, as the Indians do, announces that she is an Indian).

A striking feature of paronyms (as opposed to synonyms) is that they are not interchangeable. If synonyms can replace each other in the text (there was a scream - there was a scream; moral person- a virtuous person), then paronyms, as a rule, do not have this property (for example, you cannot say military ID instead of a military ID). The differences in the meanings of paronyms are usually so important that replacing one word with another without violating the meaning is impossible.

However, sometimes paronyms in certain meanings and combinations can act as synonyms. For example, you can say both distant and distant lands, and a grassy and grassy field.

As a rule, paronyms included in a pair are combined with a different set of words, and this must be taken into account when using them. If you have difficulty choosing correct form paronym or a word with which a paronym can be combined, you must refer to dictionaries of paronyms of the Russian language or to explanatory dictionaries.

It is the differences in compatibility that make it possible to distinguish between paronymous words. For example, the paronyms guaranteed and guaranteed are combined with a different set of nouns. Guarantee can be: capital, loan, securities, documentation, passport, letter, obligation, contract, repair. In combination with the word guaranteed, you can use the following words: advance, income, earnings, loan, salary, salary, production, circulation, return, work, rest, harvest. Differences in compatibility are associated with differences in meaning: guarantee - relating to a guarantee, serving as a guarantee; guaranteed - conditioned, supported by law, and also secured.

Let us also compare the paronyms demonstrative (performed for the purpose of demonstration) and demonstrative (intended for demonstration, showing), which in speech can be combined with in different words. The word demonstrative has three meanings, but demonstrative has only one.

From paronym dictionaries you can find out that the following are combined with the adjective demonstrative: nouns denoting actions, manifestations of a person’s attitude towards someone or something (action, care, attention, respect, character); nouns related to “military” vocabulary (attack, fire); nouns lecture, method, etc.

The adjective demonstration combines with a limited range of nouns, mainly denoting a training room for lectures, classes, demonstration of something. (lecture, auditorium, class, hall). Therefore, it is impossible to say, for example: “In classes with children we use blocks, posters, bright diagrams and other demonstrative materials.” The material can only be demonstrative, but if someone slams the door loudly when leaving, such behavior can be demonstrative.

As a rule, the dictionary entry of a paronym dictionary provides comprehensive information about the meanings of paronyms and the words with which they are combined: the dictionary warns the reader against possible errors and inaccuracies. The task of paronym dictionaries is to find out the compatibility features of words with the same root based on a comparison of their semantics.

For the convenience of considering the material, we can conditionally distinguish three groups of paronyms. 1. Coincident or similar in meaning. 2. Coinciding in some meanings. 3. Significantly different in meaning. Let's consider these groups.

Paronyms with the same root are mostly close in meaning, but differ in subtle shades of meaning. For example, the paronyms pay and pay have similar meanings.

When comparing values, it is easy to make sure that they coincide in many respects (the highlighted part is common). However, the paronyms pay and pay are combined with different elephants. For example, you can pay (that) travel, sledge), bill, but pay (that) fees, debt. The verb shake is combined with nouns and instrumental case(to pay with money, currency), which cannot be combined with the verb to pay. You can pay for something (for travel, for shopping!, but you cannot say, for example: pay for travel. In this case, you need to use the form pay for travel, since the verb pay does not combine with nouns with the preposition for. The ability of paronyms to combine with different The elephants and shapes of the layers present the main difficulty in their use.

Paronyms can be combined with the same forms of words, but differ in subtle shades of meaning. For example, paronyms simplify - simplify have general meaning“to make it simpler,” but the second word is characterized by the additional connotation of “more simple than it should be.” For example: simplify your singing style and simplify your speech. The semantic nuances of paronyms are usually so important that replacing one word with another without violating the meaning is impossible.

PARONOMASIA

The phenomenon of paronomasia (from the gr. para - near, onomazo - I call) consists in the sound similarity of words that have different morphological roots (cf.: pairs - sledges, pilot - boatswain, clarinet - cornet, injection - infection). As with paronymy, lexical pairs in paronomasia belong to the same part of speech and perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence. Such words may have the same prefixes, suffixes, endings, but their roots are always different. Apart from random phonetic similarity, the words in such lexical pairs have nothing in common; their subject-semantic relevance is completely different.

Paronomasia, unlike paronymy, is not a natural and regular phenomenon. And although there are many phonetically similar layers in the language, comparing them as lexical pairs is the result of individual perception: one will see paronomasia in a chara circulation - type, another - in a circulation - a mirage, a third - in a circulation - a turn. However, paronymy and paronomasia are close in terms of the use of similar-sounding words in speech.

Accuracy of inflection and form formation

Accuracy and clarity of speech sometimes requires us to be clear in the use of gender and case forms of nouns. Try to guess who - a man or a woman - says about himself: “I am an orphan, an unfortunate orphan!” Everyone will think: of course, a woman! Indeed, for modern speech It has become the norm to agree in meaning with common nouns (they are equally applicable to men and women - slob, sweet tooth, coquette, smart girl). But among the writers of the past one can find a different agreement: Come, dear grandfather, take pity on me, an unfortunate orphan (Ch., “Vanka”),

Now we say: He has a terrible sweet tooth; This boy is such a slob...

However, there are cases when the incorrect use of forms of adjectives that agree with common nouns introduces ambiguity. For example: He stood amazed, but soon became filled with compassion for the little one lying in front of him. But the girl took the child in her arms and, calling the boy cute, carried her away. Are we talking about a boy or a girl?

The meaning of some nouns can be clarified case endings. Tik, in the nominative case form plural breads mean standing cereals, and breads mean products baked from flour. Therefore, the following phrase cannot be considered true: The housewife took the bread out of the oven. The endings in the following nouns should not be confused: bellows (blacksmith's) - bellows (dressed hides); images (literary and artistic) - images (icons); orders (knightly and monastic societies) - orders (insignia); belts (geographical) - belts (parts of clothing); omissions (oversights - passes (documents); sables (animals) - sable (fur); brakes (obstacles) - brakes (instruments); flowers (plants) - colors (color); junkers (until 1945 in Germany this was the name for large landowners) - cadets (cadets in military schools of Tsarist Russia).

We should not forget about the semantic differences between some grammatical forms adjectives.

Often the full form of adjectives indicates constant sign subject, and a short one - for a temporary one. Compare: he is sick - he is sick, she is so kind - be kind, his movements are calm - his face is calm.

In other cases, the full form of adjectives denotes an absolute attribute not related to a specific situation, and a short relative attribute in relation to a specific situation: the ceiling is low (a trait in general) - the ceiling is low (for high furniture). Wed. also: the boots are small, the boots are large, the passage is narrow.

Particular precision should be observed when using pronouns. Their ability to replace previous ones cannot cause ambiguity in the statement. For example, how to understand the phrase about love for animals? - Sasha knew that if, after three days of keeping the dogs in a special place, the owners did not come for them, they would be destroyed (the owners or the dogs?). Such use of pronouns often gives rise to ambiguity and inappropriate comedy: Teachers are concerned free time a teenager and how to kill him...

When using a verb, ambiguity may arise due to the possibility of double interpretation of forms in -sya, for example; Children who get lost on the streets gather here (do they gather themselves or are they collected?). Failure to distinguish between subject-object relations in such cases can create an inappropriately comic statement: The chicks are fed by insects; A dog is harnessed to the sleigh to help the hunter.

Clarity of syntactic structures

Accuracy and clarity of speech are determined by the correctness grammatical structures, constructing phrases and sentences.

The ability to combine words into phrases in different ways creates ambiguity: The teacher had to explain a lot (did the teacher explain it or did someone explain it to him?).

The reason for the ambiguity of the statement may be the incorrect order of words in the sentence: 1. Spacious loggias are framed by screens made of reinforced glass. 2. Seven operating platforms serve several hundred people. In such sentences the subject does not differ in form from direct object and therefore it is unclear what (or who) is the subject of the action. An example of such confusion is the Sun covered by a cloud.

Of course, such sentences can be corrected if they are used in writing; it is enough to change the order of the words: 1. Reinforced glass screens frame the spacious loggias. 2. Several hundred people operate seven operating platforms. And, of course: The cloud covered the sun. But if you hear a phrase with the wrong word order, you may misinterpret it. This is what L.P.’s joke is based on. Chekhov: “I wish you to avoid all kinds of troubles, sorrows and misfortunes.”

Semantic ambiguity sometimes arises in combinations such as a letter to the mother (written by her or addressed to her), criticism of Belinsky, portraits of Repin, etc.

Ambiguity can also arise in complex sentences with attributive clauses such as: The illustrations for the stories that were sent to the competition were executed masterfully (were illustrations or stories sent to the competition?). In these cases, it is recommended to replace subordinate clauses participial phrases: Illustrations sent for stories. Or: Illustrations for submitted stories.

Conclusion

Language is an integral part of our lives; every day people communicate with each other, exploring the world through communication. Therefore, knowledge of one’s language, its literary norm is necessary now - in conditions of changing norms, the introduction of new words and expressions. Only by studying the stylistics and culture of speech can we preserve the Russian language as it is in at the moment and embellish it. Only understanding of your speech by others will allow you to occupy a high position in society. The quality and beauty of speech make it clear the level of human development.

Literature:

1. Vvedensky L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu., “Russian language and culture of speech” - textbook, “Phoenix”, Rostov-on-Don, 2001

2. Golub I.B., “Stylistics of the Russian language”, “Iris-press”, Moscow, 1997

3. Golub I.B., “Russian language and culture of speech” - textbook, “Logos”, Moscow, 2003

4. Dunev A.I., Dymarsky M.Ya., Kozhevnikov A.Yu. “Russian language and culture of speech”, “Higher School”, Moscow, 2002

5. Maksimov V.I. , Kazarinov N.V., Barabanova N.R., “Russian language and culture of speech” - textbook, “Gardariki”, Moscow, 2002

6. Reformatsky A.A., “Introduction to Linguistics”, “Aspect Press”, Moscow, 2000

7. Rosenthal D.E., “Practical statistics of the Russian language”, “AST-LTD Publishing House”, Tula, 1998