Denotes grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning of the word and the means of its expression
grammatical meaning.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings.
Grammar word categories
Grammar as a science.
Word forms are constructed by means of inflectional morphemes. Thus, the morpheme can be considered a separate unit of the grammatical structure of the language. Grammar is a science that studies the regular and general features of the structure of linguistic signs and their behavior. The object of grammar is 1) the patterns of word changes and 2) the principles of their combination when constructing an utterance. According to the duality of the object, the traditional sections of grammar are distinguished - morphology and syntax. Everything related to the abstract grammatical meanings of a word and its form change belongs to morphology. All phenomena associated with the syntagmatics of a word, as well as with the construction and syntagmatics of a sentence, belong to the syntactic sphere of the language. These subsystems (morphology and syntax) are in the closest interaction and interweaving, so that the assignment of certain grammatical phenomena to morphology or syntax often turns out to be conditional (for example, the category of case, voice).
The generalizing nature of grammar allows it to reveal the most essential features of the structure of the language, so grammar is rightly considered the central part of linguistics. In the process of development of grammar as a science, the understanding of its object has changed. From the study of word forms, scientists moved on to the connection between grammar and the vocabulary of the language, as well as to the study of speech functioning.
Vladimir Alexandrovich Plungyan: Cognition is always asymmetrical: only fragments
reality, a person tends to perceive as if through a magnifying
glass, while others - as if through inverted binoculars. “Cognitive
deformation” of reality is one of the main properties of human cognition.
Grammatical meanings are exactly those meanings that fall into the field
view of a magnifying glass; this is the most important for the user
given linguistic system of meaning.
2. Grammatical meaning.
The focus of grammar is grammatical meanings and ways of expressing them. Grammatical meaning is 1) a generalized meaning inherent in 2) a number of words or syntactic constructions, which finds its regular and typed 3) expression in the language. For example, in a sentence Petrov - student the following grammatical meanings can be distinguished:
the meaning of a statement of some fact (the meaning inherent in a number of syntactic constructions is regularly expressed by falling intonation)
the meaning of the fact being related to the present time (expressed by the absence of a verb; cf.: Petrov was a student, Petrov will be a student)
singular meaning (the meaning inherent in a number of words is expressed by the absence of an ending ( Petrovs, students),
as well as a number of others (the meaning of identification, the meaning of the unconditional reality of the fact, masculine).
The grammatical meaning of a word includes the following types of information:
information about the part of speech to which the word belongs
information about the syntagmatic relationships of the word
information about the paradigmatic relationships of the word.
Let us recall the famous experimental phrase of L.V. Shcherby: The glistening kuzdra shteko bobbed up the bokra and curls the bokra. It includes words with artificial roots and real affixes that express the whole complex of grammatical meanings. It is clear to the listener, for example, to which parts of speech all the words of this phrase refer, what between budlanula and bokra there is a relationship between object and action, that one action has already taken place in the past, while the other actually continues in the present.
The grammatical meaning is characterized by the following main features:
generality
obligatory: if a noun, for example, has the meaning of a number, then it is consistently expressed in each word in one way or another, regardless of the goals and intentions of the speaker.
Prevalence for a whole class of words: for example, all verbs in Russian express the meanings of aspect, mood, person and number.
The list is closed: if the lexical system of each language is open and constantly updated with new units and new meanings, then the grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of grammatical meanings: for example, in Russian nouns, these are the meanings of gender, number and case.
Typization of expression: grammatical meanings are transmitted in languages in strictly defined ways - with the help of means specially assigned to them: affixes, service words, etc.
Languages differ from each other in what meanings they choose as grammatical. Thus, the meaning of a number is, for example, grammatical in Russian and English, but non-grammatical in Chinese and Japanese, since in these languages a name can serve as the name of one or several objects. The meaning of certainty/uncertainty is grammatical in English, German, French and many other languages and non-grammatical in Russian, where there are no articles.
3. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
The ways of expressing grammatical meanings are varied. There are two leading methods: synthetic and analytical, and each method includes a number of private varieties.
The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings implies the possibility of combining several morphemes (root, derivational and inflectional) within one word. The grammatical meaning in this case is always expressed within the framework of the word. The synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings includes:
affixation (use of various types of affixes: I go - you go);
reduplication (full or partial repetition of the stem: fari - white, farfaru - whites in the Hausa language in Africa);
internal inflection (grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root: foot-feetв English language);
suppletivism (combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express grammatical meanings (I go - went)
The analytical way of expressing grammatical meanings involves the separate expression of the lexical and grammatical meanings of a word. Grammatical forms are a combination of fully significant morphologically invariable lexical units and service elements (functional words, intonation and word order): I will read, more important, let me go). The lexical meaning is expressed by an unchangeable full-valued word, and the grammatical meaning is expressed by a service element.
Depending on whether synthetic or analytical ways of expressing grammatical meanings predominate in a language, two main morphological types of languages are distinguished: the synthetic type of language (in which the synthetic way of expressing grammatical meanings dominates) and the analytic type (in which the tendency to analyticism prevails). The nature of the word in it depends on the predominance in the language of the tendency to analyticism or synthetism. In synthetic languages, the word retains its grammatical characteristics outside the sentence. In analytical languages, a word acquires a grammatical characteristic only in a sentence.
Grammatical meaning is revealed as a result of the opposition of one linguistic unit to another. So, the meaning of the present tense is revealed by contrasting several forms of the verb: knew - knows - will know. Grammatical contrasts or oppositions form systems called grammatical categories. A grammatical category can be defined as a series of homogeneous grammatical meanings opposed to each other, expressed by formal indicators (affixes, functional words, intonation, etc.). In the above definition, the word “homogeneous” is very important. In order for the meanings to be opposed on some basis, they must also have some common feature. Thus, the present can be contrasted with the past and the future, since they all relate to the sequence of events described. In this regard, another definition of the grammatical category can be given: it is the unity of a certain grammatical meaning and the formal means of its expression that actually exists in the language. These definitions do not contradict each other. If we compare them, it becomes clear that the grammatical category includes a generalized grammatical meaning (for example, the meaning of time), private grammatical meanings (for example, the present tense, past tense, future tense), they are called grammes, and the means of expressing these meanings (for example , suffix, function word, etc.)
Classification of grammatical categories
by the number of opposing members. There are two-member categories (number in modern Russian: singular-plural), three-member (person: first-second-third), polynomial (case). The more grammes in a given grammatical category, the more complex the relationship between them, the more features in the content of each gramme.
Form-building and classifying. In formative categories, grammatical meanings belong to different forms of the same word. For example, the category of case. Every noun has a nominative, genitive, etc. form. case: table, table, table, table, table, about the table. In classifying categories, grammatical meanings belong to different words. The word cannot change according to the classifying feature. For example, the gender category of nouns. A noun cannot change by gender, all its forms belong to the same gender: table, table, table - masculine; but bed, bed, bed is feminine. Nevertheless, the gender of a noun is important from the point of view of grammar, since the forms of concordant adjectives, pronouns, verbs, etc. depend on it: a large table, this table, the table stood; but: the bed stood, a large bed.
By the nature of the transmitted values
Objective (reflect real connections and relationships that exist in reality, for example, the number of a noun)
Subjective-objective (reflect the point of view from which reality is viewed, for example, the pledge of a verb: workers build a house - a house is being built by workers)
Formal (do not reflect objective reality, indicate a connection between words, for example, the gender of adjectives or not animate nouns)
5. Grammar categories of words
Grammar categories of words must be distinguished from grammatical categories. A grammatical category necessarily has a system of grammatical forms opposed to each other with a homogeneous meaning. The lexico-grammatical category does not have such a system of forms. Lexico-grammatical categories are divided into semantic-grammatical and formal.
The semantic-grammatical category has semantic features that distinguish it from other categories and affect the grammatical features of the words of this category. The largest of these categories are parts of speech. Thus, a noun has the meaning of objectivity and is combined with an adjective. The verb has the meaning of action and is combined with an adverb. Within the parts of speech, smaller groupings are distinguished, for example, among nouns - animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
Formal categories differ in the way in which the grammatical forms of the words they contain are formed. These are groupings of words according to the type of conjugation (conjugation classes), according to the type of declension (declination classes). Between formal categories, in principle, there are no relations of semantic opposition: these are parallel ways of expressing the same grammatical meanings. The assignment of a word to one of the categories is determined by tradition.
MORPHOLOGY. PART I
THEME 1 . MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE
Subject of morphology
Morphology (from the Greek morphe - form and logos - teaching) is a grammatical doctrine of a word. The word is the main object of morphology. Morphology studies the grammatical properties of words, establishes what grammatical meanings certain words, classes of words have, and reveals the specifics of grammatical categories in words belonging to different parts of speech. For example, both nouns and adjectives have categories of gender, number, and case. However, for nouns, these categories are independent, and for adjectives, they are syntactically determined, depending on the gender, number, and case of the noun with which the given adjective is combined (cf.: big house, big house, big house etc.; our big room; large building; big houses etc.).
The tasks of morphology include determining the circle of words that have one or another grammatical category. Grammatical categories either cover the entire lexical base of a certain part of speech, or apply only to the main array of words belonging to it. So, nouns pluralia tantum (scissors, twilight, yeast etc.) do not have the category of genus, impersonal verbs do not have "a person category. One of the most important tasks of morphology is to identify and describe the specifics of the functioning of grammatical categories in the vocabulary of various parts of speech.
Morphology establishes the composition of the grammatical forms of various types of words, reveals the rules for changing words, distributes words according to the types of declension and conjugation.
Morphology includes the study of parts of speech. It examines the semantic and formal features of words of various categories, develops criteria and rules for classifying words by parts of speech, determines the range of words for each part of speech, establishes a system of parts of speech, studies the lexical and grammatical features of words of each part of speech, and reveals patterns of interaction between parts of speech.
Grammatical meanings of words
A word is a complex unity of lexical and grammatical meanings. For example, the word lamp stands for "lighting or heating device of various devices." This is its lexical meaning. In the semantic content of the word lamp includes more values female, nominative and singular. These are its grammatical meanings.
The lexical meaning of a word is an individual semantic feature that distinguishes it from other words. Even words that are close in meaning (cf. lamp, lampada, lantern) have different lexical meanings. Lampada -“a small vessel with a wick, filled with oil and lit in front of the icons”; flashlight has three meanings: 1) " lighting fixture in the form of a glass ball, a box with glass walls”; 2) special: "a glass skylight in the roof, as well as a glazed ledge in the building"; 3) figurative: "a bruise from a beating, from a bruise."
Grammatical meanings are characteristic of a whole class of words. So, the meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case combine the words lamp, water, fish, room, mermaid, thought etc., which have nothing in common in their lexical meanings. Wed also: 1) I run, I fly, I read, I lift, I write, I jump; 2) sang, drew, read, thought, danced, shot; 3) run, read, take, fly, wipe, buy. The words of the first row denote different processes, but they all express the grammatical meanings of the 1st person, singular. The words of the second row are united by the meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine. kind, words of the third row - meanings imperative mood, units numbers. Thus, grammatical meaning is an abstract meaning abstracted from the lexical content of a word and inherent in a whole class of words.
The grammatical meanings are not singular. One grammatical meaning necessarily implies the presence of another (or others), homogeneous and correlative with it. For example, the singular value implies plural (bird - birds, nagas - pashas); meaning not perfect look is paired with the meaning of the perfect form (take off- take off, take - take); meaning to them. pad. enters into a relationship with all other case meanings.
Grammatical meanings are not isolated from lexical ones. They seem to be layered on the lexical (real, material) meanings of words and rely on them. Therefore, they are often referred to as companions. Thus, the grammatical meanings of gender, number and -case in a noun book accompany its lexical meaning; grammatical meanings of the 3rd person, singular numbers, carry aspect in a verb draws based on its lexical meaning. A. A. Shakhmatov wrote about this: “The grammatical meaning of a linguistic form is opposed to its real meaning. The real meaning of a word depends on its correspondence as a verbal sign to one or another phenomenon of the external world. The grammatical meaning of a word is the meaning it has in relation to other words. The real meaning connects the word directly with the external world, the grammatical meaning connects it primarily with other words.
Grammatical meanings reflect either certain features of the phenomena of the external world, or the attitude of the speaker to the thought expressed by him, or intralinguistic connections and relationships of words. They, notes A. A. Shakhmatov, “may be based (1) partly on phenomena given in the outside world: for example, many others. h. birds depends on the fact that we have in mind the idea of not one, but several birds ... (2) Partially, the accompanying meanings are based on the subjective attitude of the speaker to a certain phenomenon: for example, I went means the same action as me I go but taking place, according to the speaker, in the past tense ... (3) Partly, finally, the accompanying meanings are based ... on a formal, external reason given in the word itself: thus, the feminine gender of the word book depends only on the fact that it ends in -a.
Grammatical form is defined as regular modifications of a word that have different grammatical meanings. For example, the form of 1 person unit. h. present write, read, see or the past tense form pl. h. write, read, see.
In morphology, the term grammatical form can be used in two ways. First, the grammatical form can be understood as an abstract pattern in abstraction from concrete words: the form of the adjective sg. hours, feminine, I. p. This form can be represented in different words: red, wooden, boring.
Another use of the term is in the meaning of the form of a particular word: the form of I.p. unit noun back. For terminological distinction, the concept is introduced word forms. Word form - a specific word in any grammatical form: in the garden is a word form garden.
There are several points in the content of the word form. Firstly, the lexical meaning is distinguished, and secondly, the word-formation (or derivational) meaning, which, on the one hand, participates in the formation of the lexical meaning, and on the other hand, carries information about the part-of-speech belonging of the word. For example, in the word teacher the derivational meaning of a person is expressed by the suffix -tel, which also signals that the word is a noun. Thirdly, grammatical relational meanings are distinguished in the word, which are expressed either by inflection (ending) or in other ways (see below). For example, in the word teacher grammatical meanings of gender, number, case are expressed by zero ending.
Compare: lexical meaning relational meaning
Teacher + Tel + Sh
derivational
Meaning
grammatical meaning
Grammatical meanings are opposed to lexical ones in terms of the way they express meanings: grammatical meanings have a regular expression in the form of affixes, sometimes the roots themselves (a phenomenon of suppletivism), repetitions (reduplication), non-segmental units, auxiliary words or combinations of independent words. Lexical values lack such a regular expression.
Grammatical meanings are abstract in nature and are inherent in a number of words, not just one word. The abstract nature of grammatical meanings is manifested, in particular, in such examples, where the meaning of objectivity - a part-of-speech characteristic of nouns - is found in words whose roots express action - move, run. The grammatical meaning is repeated in a number of words, the lexical meaning is repeated individually.
Let us consider in more detail the ways of expressing grammatical meanings. There are synthetic and analytical methods. With a synthetic (simple) method, grammatical meanings are expressed through morphemes - relational, formative, and even root. In the analytical (complex) method, grammatical meaning is expressed by a combination of words - significant and auxiliary or significant and significant, as well as reduplication, word order and intonation.
Examples of relational affixes are: DOLLS A - DOLLS
RED - RED - RED, WALKED - WALKED A - WALKED,
where inflections express the meaning of gender and number. Formative affixes are used, for example, to express past tense values - WALKED, SAW.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed by different roots, this method is called suppletivism: good - better, bad - worse, I - me. In addition to the named synthetic methods, internal inflection and stress are also used. Internal inflection is a grammatical tool represented by an alternation of phonemes (historical, or grammatical) that serves to express grammatical meanings: in English, tooth (teeth) - teeth (tooth), man (man) - men (men). Stress serves as the only means of distinguishing forms of units. h. R. p. and many others. h.i.p. for words pbrusa - parusb, lega - lugb.
Analytical methods, which are a combination of two words, significant and official, are observed in the examples: I will write, I would write. In the example I walked, you walked, he walked the category of a person is expressed by separate independent words - pronouns. Another means of expressing grammatical meanings is reduplication. This phenomenon consists in the repetition of either a syllable, or a root, or a whole word. For example, barely, just a little bit. In some languages, reduplication is quite common. For example, in some African languages, reduplication is a means of expressing the plural; in the Indo-European proto-language, reduplication was used to express the meaning of duration in verbal stems. Different intonation delimits sentences with the meaning of the question and motivation: Right? - Right! In the examples two hours and two hours word order affects the expression of the meaning of a particular and approximate time.
The word forms of one word constitute a paradigm. Paradigms can be complete and particular, complete and incomplete. The paradigms of many words turn out to be very complex. For example, the case paradigm of a noun is made up of the case word forms of the singular and plural. Case forms combined by a grammatical singular or plural value are particular paradigms within the full paradigm. A complete paradigm may consist of two, three, four or more partial paradigms. For example, a full paradigm of an adjective consists of at least five particulars. In the paradigm of a word, there may be no particular paradigm. For example, collective nouns do not have plural forms. Such paradigms are called incomplete.
The word is one of the basic units of grammar. The word combines its sound matter and its meanings - lexical and grammatical.
Grammatical meaning -a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic constructions, which finds its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, tense of the verb, etc.
The grammatical meaning is opposed to the lexical meaning, which is devoid of a regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.
Criteria for distinguishing between lexical and grammatical meanings:
2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), while GL is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, noun singulars.
3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GP changes in different forms of the word.
4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.
A characteristic feature of grammatical meaning is also recognized standard, regularity of the way of expression. In most cases, the meanings traditionally attributed to grammatical ones are indeed directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means expressions.
Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within grammatical form means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).
Grammar category– a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.
The concept of grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a union of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a number of forms).
a) inflectional - appear in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, the case and number of Russian nouns, the gender and number of French adjectives, the mood and tense of the verb);
b) classification categories are inherent given word in all its forms and refer it to the class of similar words.
The members of the classification categories are represented by different words, for example, the category of the gender of nouns in Russian 'table' is masculine, 'desk' is feminine, 'window' is middle. genus.
33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.
I. Synthetics
1. Affixation consists in using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books-y; read-l-and; mäktäp-lär. Affixes are auxiliary morphemes.
2. Supletivism. Suppletivism is understood as the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), man - people (GZ pl.), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.
Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. LZ they have one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.
3. Reduplication(repetition) consists in the complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang-' human' , orange-orange -'people' .
4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. sound changes. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘to collect – to collect’; ‘sing-sang’.
II. Analytical tools -
GCs get their expression outside the main word, often in other words.
1. Service words can use for express.GZ: I will read (bud. time), I would read (conventional inclination).
We went to a cafe (V.p.). - We went from a cafe (R.p.).
2. Word order.The house (I.p.) covered the forest (V.p.). - The forest (I.p.) blocked the house (V.p.).
It is especially important, for example, for isolating languages.
The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmented, i.e. can be superimposed on a segment chain.
3. Emphasis: hands (I. and V. p. pl.) - hands (R. p. singular).
4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?
So, in the adjectives of the Russian language, we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter. This gives us reason to assert that the grammatical category of gender is characteristic of the adjectives of the Russian language.
The grammatical meaning (content plan) and the formal indicator of this meaning (expression plan) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. grammeme– component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning is a specific concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.
A gramme can have multiple meanings.
The gramme of the plural of nouns in Russian has the following meanings: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sands'.
The languages of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes and grammatical ways expressions of grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account
the following criteria:
The presence / absence of the corresponding grammatical category;
The number of grammes of the grammatical category;
Ways of expressing the grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;
The digits of words with which this grammatical category is associated
34. Methods of linguistics
General scientific methods.
Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help to reveal the hidden specificity of the object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.
Method- the way and way of knowing the object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.
In linguistics, there are:
common methods - generalized sets of theoretical attitudes, language research methods associated with a certain linguistic theory and methodology,
private- separate techniques, methods, operations - technical means of studying a certain aspect of the language.
Each method is based on the knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories of subjective dialectics.
General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.
Observation carried out in natural conditions sensory perception objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena, its results may be random and not reliable enough.
Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object under study.
Induction and deduction are intellectual methods of cognition. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of the experiment are systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.
Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its constituent parts or the separation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for the knowledge of the general through the individual. Synthesis- mental or experimental connection constituent parts the subject and its properties and the study of it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected, mutually conditioned.
Private methods of linguistics.
Comparative historical method- the scientific method, with the help of which, by means of comparison, the general and particular in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of one and the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;
The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that make it possible to prove the relationship of certain languages and restore the most ancient facts of their history. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders are F.Bopp, J.Grimm, R.Rask, A.Kh.Vostokov.
Descriptive Method- a system of research techniques used to characterize the phenomena of language in this stage its development; it is a method of synchronous analysis.
comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two compared languages and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.
In modern linguistics, considerable attention is paid to the study of linguistic phenomena. statistical methods of mathematics.
The term grammar is used in two senses.
1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;
2) Grammar - the doctrine of these means, methods, rules with which you can create phrases, sentences in a particular language.
Grammar in the first sense is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.
Grammar consists of several aspects:
1. Word formation (derivatology) - deals with the study of the formation of new words according to existing models in the language, the structure of derivative words that obey strictly defined rules. Word formation occupies an intermediate position between vocabulary and grammar.
2. Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.
3. Syntax (translated from Greek as "military formation") explores different types combinations of words, relations between words in a phrase and a sentence, finally, the sentence as a whole, different kinds and types of offers.
2. Word form and its grammatical meaning
The subject of study of grammar, as well as vocabulary, is the word.
But lexicology studies lexical word- lexeme, and grammar studies grammar word- word form, word form.
A word form is a grammatical modification of the same word - a lexeme. This means that word forms have different grammatical, but the same lexical meaning (sing, sing, sing; cat, cat, cat). Different lexemes can have the same grammatical meaning, but their own lexical meaning. So, the words window, tree, lake have the same grammatical meaning (they express the objectivity and meaning of the neuter gender of a noun).
Lexical and grammatical meanings are thus the two main types of meanings inherent in a language.
3. On the position of grammar in the language system
The interaction of grammar with vocabulary can be shown by the following example. What can express a thought expressed in such a series of words: we, feel, soldier, hurt, for, alive, Tanya, and, what, threaten, danger. In this example, it is difficult to even guess what the words together mean. Meanwhile, in M. Gorky's story "26 and One" we read: "We felt that the soldier was hurt and that Tanya was in danger." Therefore, in order to express a thought, it is necessary not only to understand the semantics of individual words, but also to understand what connections they enter into in the very process of expressing a thought. Our thought, as it were, is clothed in a certain form, which turns out to be closely connected with it. Grammar, by establishing grammatical relations between words, does not mechanically combine them. It is not indifferent to those real semantic connections that exist between words in a given language. Not every word can be combined by grammar with any other word of a given language.
A strong word is a true indestructible word, while a strong word is an abusive bad word.
Grammar is also related to phonetics. Any way of expressing a grammatical meaning (which we will discuss below) is denounced by a material shell in the form of a sound or a letter.
Or a more specific example: houses - houses. Stress acts as the main distinguishing feature of the grammatical meaning of words. The house has the following grammatical characteristics that form the grammatical meaning of the word: masculine noun, in the genitive case, in the singular). And houses with an accent on the second syllable - a plural noun in the nominative or accusative case.
4. On the differences between lexical meaning and grammatical
From a lexical point of view, the word table is understood primarily as a word that has a certain lexical meaning. From the standpoint of grammar, the word table is a masculine noun in the nominative case in the singular, that is, as having certain grammatical characteristics, the totality of which forms the grammatical meaning of this word form.
One of major differences grammatical meaning from lexical is that the grammatical meaning correlates with logical concepts, but does not correlate with the objects of reality. So the word "tree" in its lexical meaning is not only associated with a logical idea of an object related to flora, but also with a certain tree that the speaker has in mind. Otherwise, grammatically. The same word tree as a noun is comprehended by us primarily in its categorical meaning of objectivity in the broadest sense, unlike, for example, the meaning of quality (which is typical for an adjective), or the meaning of action and state (which is typical for verbs).
5. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning
1. Flexion. So in the phrase book of Peter, the connection between words is achieved with the help of the ending a.
2. Functional words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles auxiliary verbs) went to the brother
the leg of the table
Le livere de Pierre (French)
3. Word order acts as typical way expressions of grammatical meaning in those languages in which there is no inflection (or there are few of them) and the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form. For example:
The man killed a tiger.
The tiger killed the man.
Word order plays a similar role in French.
4. Emphasis. For example: Hands-hands, legs-legs, cities - city, houses - houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.
5. Intonation. Depending on how we say students are attentive with the intonation of the statement or students are attentive with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes. Therefore, an important category of the question is conveyed here with the help of intonation.
6. Suppletivism is a combination into one grammatical pair of heterogeneous or heterogeneous words:
a) when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good - better, bad - worse, gut - besser, bon - meilleur.
b) when forming personal pronouns: I - me, ich - mich, I - me.
7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when there is a complete or partial doubling of the base, for example:
a) to denote the plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang - orang (people);
b) for education superlatives adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).
6. Synthetic and analytical forms
Various ways expressions of grammatical meaning can be divided into two groups:
1. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning, when lexical meaning and grammatical meaning are expressed, as it were, together, in one and the same word, within a word. form synthetic forms, for example, read Lies!
2. Ways of expressing grammatical meaning, when the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, form forms analytical. These forms are a combination of a significant word with a function (preposition, particle, auxiliary verbs). For example, Let's Read!
In Russian, the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs belongs to the number of analytical forms: I will write. However, the lexical meaning of the word will be preserved in such an expression as "I will be a teacher."
Analytical are those constructions of the German language where auxiliary or modal verbs: Perfect, Futurum, Passiv. Analytical is the form of expressing belonging with the help of the preposition von: Die Bucher von meinen Freunden.
7. Inflections and word formations
The formation of the form of the same word is inflection. Inflection must be distinguished from word formation. When inflection changes the form of the same word, a new word is not formed. When word formation with the help of affixes (suffixes and prefixes), new words are formed: teach - teacher. The totality of all forms of words (word forms) forms a paradigm when changed. If a word has a complete system of word forms, then the word is said to have a complete paradigm. If the word is not represented by all forms, then this is a partial paradigm. Most of the words in the Russian language have a complete paradigm, but there are also words with a partial paradigm: dreams, win, vacuum.
8. The concept of a grammatical category
A grammatical category is a grammatical meaning of a generalized nature, inherent in words or combinations of words in a sentence and, at the same time, abstracted from the specific meanings of the words themselves.
The generalized nature of the grammatical category is manifested in the fact that a wide variety of words are “summed up” under the category of the singular: nouns bread, wheel, book, man, adjectives big, strong, reasonable, verbs I do, I build, I write.
A wide variety of words also fall under the masculine category: nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.
In Russian, a noun is characterized by the grammatical categories of number, gender and case, and the verb - by number, tense, aspect, mood, pledge, person, gender.
Grammatical categories cannot exist on their own, outside of certain groupings of words. These groupings usually act as parts of speech.
9. Genus category
The category of grammatical gender is common in many languages of the world, although there are languages in which the category of grammatical gender is absent (Finnish, Armenian).
The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages.
So in Russian noun. spoon - feminine, in German - der Loffel. In Russian watch - masculine, in German and French feminine - die Wache, la sentinelle.
There are languages \u200b\u200bthat have a common gender, examples from the Russian language - an orphan, quiet, bore, crybaby, gourmet.
For living beings, the ways of differentiation within the very grammatical category of gender in different languages very diverse:
1) with the help of special endings: guest - guest, spouse, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - bear;
2) using different words (heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister, German. Vater-Mutter, French pere - mere.
3) With the help of special auxiliary words, for example. ein mannlicher Adler - eagle, ein weiblicher Adler - eagle, eng. he goat - goat, she goat - goat.
4) With the help of only contextual clarification: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).
The category of gender is usually transparent in cases where the gender of a noun of the type man - woman, bull - cow, rooster - chicken is analyzed. In these cases, the category of grammatical gender is based on the biological gender of animate nouns. But the problem of grammatical gender becomes more complicated when modern languages analyze inanimate names or try to comprehend the nature of the neuter gender. The content of inanimate nouns now does not need any generic characteristic, but grammatically this characteristic is necessary for a name in many languages. In language, due to the very great stability of the grammatical form and its abstractness, such a conflict can persist for a very long time, because the speaker usually does not notice it.
10. Number category
The number category is transparent. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. At the same time, the category of number can be called universal. Its universality lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.
The category of number interacts with a certain lexical meaning the words through which it is expressed. Take, for example, nouns that have a collective meaning, that is, when a lot of some objects are thought of as a single whole (game, greenery, foliage, linen). These nouns usually do not form plurals. Consequently, the grammatical category of number, as if rising above individual names and uniting them, is at the same time not indifferent to the semantics of these words.
11. Case category
A case is a form of a name that expresses the relationship of a given name to other words in a phrase or sentence. The case is a unity of form and meaning.
Compared to all other cases, the nominative seems to be freer, more independent. It is also called independent (Peshkovsky), zero (Kartsevsky), a case devoid of special features (Jakobson). The function of the nominative case is primarily nominative, while the function of oblique cases is to express relationships between words.
Case is a morphological category. Therefore, only in those languages in which there are forms of inflection (such as the Russian table, table, table) and cases can exist.
If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language completely manages without it, using other methods to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on, see the previous lecture).
12. Parts of speech and sentence members
Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical groups of words that differ from each other: a) by a certain meaning, b) by certain morphological and syntactic features, c) by certain grammatical categories, d) by syntactic functions as part of a phrase and sentence. In inflectional languages, parts of speech also differ in the types of form formation and word formation.
The proportion of the above features that distinguish one part of speech from another, in various languages not the same.
In Russian, morphological features of parts of speech are of decisive importance and are usually identified very simply and clearly. Silk and silk are clearly distinguished as both a noun and an adjective. It turns out otherwise in a language like English, in which the morphological distinction between nouns and adjectives is not presented as clearly as in Russian. Silk - "silk" is a noun, but in the phrase silk dress - "silk dress" it already acts as an adjective.
Parts of speech in one language are characterized by internal heterogeneity. This is how independent (significant) parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals) and service parts (prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns) are distinguished.
Being lexico-grammatical groups or categories of words, parts of speech should be comprehended on the basis of a number of criteria in their interaction and interconnection. These are the lexical, morphological and syntactic criteria.
Syntax associates parts of speech with members of a sentence. The members of a sentence are syntactic categories that arise in a sentence based on the interaction of words and phrases and reflect the relationship between the elements of the sentence. The parts of speech in the sentence system do not simply repeat themselves, but undergo a certain transformation. No matter how deep the connection between the noun and the subject, these concepts are correlated, but not identical, the same should be said about the interaction between verbs and predicate, adjective and definition.
13. Nouns and adjectives
A noun is a part of speech that expresses objectivity in the broad sense of the word. In Russian, the objectivity of a noun is conveyed in the forms of gender, number, and case.
The noun names and expresses not only objects, but also actions (running, flight), states (joy, knowledge), concepts. That is why nouns should be associated with objectivity, and not only with objects.
The adjective as a part of speech was formed from the name of the noun. They used to say grass-green or green-grass in the sense of "green grass" or stone - wall meant "stone wall". By such a juxtaposition of two nouns, the idea of quality was expressed in ancient languages. Gradually, as a person became more and more aware that one of the nouns in such combinations depends on the other (in our example, green from grass), in this dependent noun (green) the idea of objectivity weakened more and more and the idea of quality increased. These gradual changes - the weakening of the objectivity of the first name (greenery) and the growth of a sign of quality in it - eventually leads to the creation of a new part of speech - the name of the adjective. Instead of the old green-grass type, a new green grass appears.
Adjectives are usually of two types: qualitative and relative. From qualitative adjectives, degrees of comparison are formed, since the quality in the subject may be present to a greater or lesser extent. From relative adjectives degrees of comparison are not formed, because the relation is not conceived qualitatively, it is either given or it is not. Therefore, for the classification of adjective names into qualitative and relative, their semantics is very important.
In the course of the long development of language and thinking, a modern system comparisons.
Ways of forming degrees of comparison.
In most modern languages, degrees of comparison are transmitted either inflectively, with the help of endings, or lexically (analytically) with the help of special "amplifying" words.
Beautiful - more beautiful - most beautiful (very beautiful).
A special type of formation of degrees of comparison is the so-called suppletive method (from Latin suppleo, ere - I fill).
Good - best - best.
Good-better-best
Gut-besser-am besten.
With the help of reduplication: big - big, small - small.
14. Pronouns as a special part of speech
A pronoun is a part of speech that refers to persons, objects and their signs, but does not name them.
This is a very special part of speech, since the pronoun combines into one class grammatical features that are individually characteristic of the most diverse parts of speech. Personal pronouns are used in parallel with nouns (for example, I am a person), possessive - with adjectives (my - good), and indefinite - with adverbs (someone - far away). In the category of pronouns, the properties of different parts of speech appear and intersect.
The originality of pronouns is also found in the fact that many traditional grammatical categories acquire a special meaning in the pronoun system. The pronouns we and you, for example, cannot be considered as a plural of "I" and "you", since they do not indicate many I and you, but a person speaking together with another person or persons (we), or the person of the interlocutor shared with another person or persons (you). So the relationship between I - we, you - you turns out to be different than the relationship table - tables.
15. Verb and verbal categories of tense, aspect and mood
A verb is a part of speech that names actions (work, build, draw) or represents various processes in the form of an action - a state, a manifestation of a sign, an attitude towards someone or something (hope, worry, grumble, love, blush, doze, stand, grow, respect).
The concept of a predicate (predicate) is much broader than the concept of a verb. Predicativity (predicate) can be expressed by various parts of speech, for example, a noun. For example, he is an officer. Despite the fact that predicativity is transmitted in different ways, nevertheless, the verb is the main means of its expression, especially in Indo-European languages. In other words, predicativity is the primary function of the verb in the sentence, while in other parts of speech it acts as an auxiliary means, as their secondary function.
As deep as the distinction between nouns and verbs seems now, historically it did not take shape immediately. The presence in the language of a special category of participle, which can perform the function of a name in a sentence - definitions and the function of a predicate, indirectly testifies to the remnants of that era in the development of the language, when the verb was not yet sufficiently separated from the name.
Time category
Time category. This category is presented as the most typical verb category (in German the verb is called Zeitworth). The grammatical category of time shows how the speaker determines the temporal relation of the utterance to the moment of speech. Everything that happened before the moment of speech belongs to the past tenses in grammar, and what will happen after the moment of speech - to the future, and finally, everything that happens at the moment of speech - to the present tense in grammar.
The aspect category is one of the most ancient categories of the verb, but at the same time it is not known in all languages. In Russian, as in other Slavic languages, the category of aspect is older than the category of time. Temporal distinctions subsequently began to be layered on specific oppositions.
The difference between the present and future tenses originally consisted only in the aspectual meaning of the verb. If the verb was perfective, then the forms of its present tense acquired the meaning of the future tense (for example, I will say or say), but if the verb turns out to be imperfective, then the forms of its present tense did not differ in meaning from the time itself (for example, I say or says). Thus, perfective verbs were not used in the present tense, and imperfective verbs could only have a descriptive future (I will speak), but not a simple future.
The division of the species into perfect and imperfect is very general and does not cover the entire wealth of types and groupings. It is possible to speak about different degrees of perfection of action and about different degrees of its imperfection.
Within the perfect view, there are: final (read, say, remove), initial (sing, speak), instant (blink, sigh) and a number of other sub-signs. Within the imperfect view - the duration of the first degree (carry, lead), the duration of the second degree (carry, drive), the duration of the third degree (read, walk around).
Species pairs of verbs in Russian usually arise by forming imperfective verbs from perfective verbs: toss (Sov. view) - throw (non-sov. view), deprive (Sov. view) - deprive (non-sov. view).
Being important grammatical categories of the verb, aspect and tense, like other categories, rise, although each in its own way, to a certain level of abstraction. To express the present tense, for example, not only the present itself is used, but sometimes the future ("I'm going south tomorrow" in the sense of "I'll go") and even the past ("Your little head is gone" in the sense of "Disappeared"). Therefore, although the present, past and future are quite grammatically delimited, the possibility of "intrusion" of one tense into the area of another is determined by the peculiar conditions of the context. The grammatical concept of time turns out to be wider than the logical representation of it. Therefore, the present tense can in certain cases convey the idea of time in general, without being relative to the moment of the action ("They work perfectly", generally work, always work perfectly).
Grammatical category of mood.
The grammatical category of mood conveys the relation of action to reality established by the speaker, shows whether he considers talking action real or unreal.
Indeed, one can say: I am writing; I certainly write; I will write; I would write; I may write; I really want to write.
In all these cases, we express our attitude to action in different ways. I write simply asserts, I certainly write categorically asserts, I would write would put forward certain conditions, the observance of which turns out to be necessary in order for me to be able to write, I may write - makes the action dependent on some conditions to an even greater extent, and so on.
It is necessary from the very beginning to distinguish between grammatical and lexical ways of expressing modality.
I would write - here the modality is expressed grammatically, while in I, perhaps, I will write or I will actually write - the modality is expressed lexically (with the help of independent words, maybe, really). Consequently, grammatical modality is conveyed not only morphologically, with special endings, but also syntactically (analytically) with special grammatical descriptive constructions (in Russian, by the forms of the verb in -l + by). As for lexical modality, it is expressed by a wide variety of so-called modal words and phrases (certainly, indeed, perhaps, perhaps, apparently, in all probability).
16. Syntax: sentence and phrase, their relationship
A sentence is an integral unit of speech grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, which is the main means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts.
The main characteristic features of the proposal:
1) not only a thought is expressed, but also the speaker's attitude to this thought is conveyed; 2) there is a special intonation of the message; 3) predicativity is concluded, that is, the relation of the message to reality, regardless of whether there is a verb in this message or not.
Even without going beyond the boundaries of one language, one can trace how the structure of the sentence has historically changed over the centuries. In the Old Russian language, syntactic composition (parataxis) prevailed over subordination (hypotaxis). The movement from syntactic composition to subordination is due to the general development of thinking, the desire of a person to more fully and comprehensively express the diversity of his thoughts. In turn, the increasing strength and diversity of thinking were ultimately predetermined by the increasing diversity of human practice, the deepening of knowledge of the surrounding world.
As a result, long historical development in the Russian language, a harmonious system of coordinating and subordinating connections has developed.
phrase
A phrase is a grammatically formed unity of two or more independent (significant) words that do not form a sentence.
In a room or in the air they also represent a combination of two words, however, such compounds are not phrases, since one of the words in each pair turns out to be not independent, but official. The phrase is based on the unity of not only structural (formal) but also semantic moments.
Phrases can be nominal (supporters of the world, white snow, clear sky), verbal (to achieve success), adverbial (sing loudly, stand still). Such a classification of phrases is complicated by the semantic convergence between phrases that are in different structural groups. For example, the verb phrase admire whom, which is clearly close to the nominal phrase admiration for whom or what.
On the relationship between sentences and phrases.
Some linguists (Fortunatov) believed that there is no difference between a sentence and a phrase, that a sentence is nothing more than an extended phrase.
In fact, a sentence is qualitatively different from a phrase, just like a phrase from a sentence. The phrase is also not an "intermediate group" between a word and a sentence. A sentence can also consist of one word. (It's dawning. I'm working). To form a phrase, you always need at least two full-valued words. Consequently, the difference between a phrase and a sentence is not quantitative (more or fewer words), but qualitative (the peculiarity of structures and what is expressed with the help of these structures). The phrase is usually devoid of those features that turn the statement into a sentence and the features of which were discussed above.
