Yarygin manual on biology. Biology - Yarygin V.N. Cellular and molecular-genetic levels of life organization - the basis of the vital activity of organisms

5th ed., rev. and additional - M.: graduate School, 2003. Book 1 - 432s., Book 2 - 334s.

The book (1st and 2nd) highlights the basic properties of life and evolutionary processes consistently at the molecular genetic, ontogenetic (1st book), population-species and biogeocenotic (2nd book) levels of dimensions in ontogeny and human populations, their significance for medical practice. Attention is paid to the biosocial essence of man and his role in relationships with nature.

The textbook reflects modern achievements biological science playing big role in practical healthcare.

For students of medical specialties of universities.

Book 1.

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Book 2.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS. Book 1.
FOREWORD 2
INTRODUCTION 6
SECTION I. LIFE AS A SPECIAL NATURAL PHENOMENON 8
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE 8
1.1. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGY 8
1.2. STRATEGY OF LIFE. ADJUSTMENT, PROGRESS, ENERGY AND INFORMATION SUPPLY 12
1.3. PROPERTIES OF LIFE 17
1.4. ORIGIN OF LIFE 20
1.5. ORIGIN OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL 23
1.6. ORIGIN OF MULTICELLULARITY 27
1.7. HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM. LEVELS OF LIFE ORGANIZATION 28
1.8. MANIFESTATION OF THE MAIN PROPERTIES OF LIFE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ITS ORGANIZATION 32
1.9. FEATURES OF THE MANIFESTATION OF BIOLOGICAL REGULARITIES IN PEOPLE. BIOSOCIAL NATURE OF HUMAN 34
SECTION II. CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR-GENETIC LEVELS OF LIFE ORGANIZATION - THE BASIS OF LIFE ACTIVITIES OF ORGANISMS 36
CHAPTER 2. CELL - ELEMENTARY UNIT OF LIVING 36
2.1. CELL THEORY 36
2.2. TYPES OF CELL ORGANIZATION 38
2.3. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL 39
2.3.1. The principle of compartmentalization. Biological membrane 39
2.3.2. The structure of a typical cell of a multicellular organism 41
2.3.3. Information flow 48
2.3.4. Intracellular energy flow 49
2.3.5. Intracellular flow of substances 51
2.3.6. Other intracellular mechanisms general meaning 52
2.3.7. The cell as a whole structure. Colloidal system of protoplasm 52
2.4. REGULARITIES OF THE EXISTENCE OF A CELL IN TIME 53
2.4.1. Life cycle cells 53
2.4.2. Cell changes in the mitotic cycle 54
CHAPTER 3. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL 60
3.1. HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY - FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING 60
3.2. HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF IDEAS ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION OF THE MATERIAL SUBSTRATE OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY 61
3.3. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE GENETIC APPARATUS 64
3.4. GENE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF THE GENETIC APPARATUS 64
3.4.1. Chemical organization of gene 65
3.4.1.1. Structure of DNA. Model by J. Watson and F. Crick 67
3.4.1.2. A way of recording genetic information in a DNA molecule. Biological code and its properties 68
3.4.2 Properties of DNA as a substance of heredity and variability 71
3.4.2.1. Self-reproduction of hereditary material. DNA replication 71
3.4.2.2. Mechanisms for maintaining the nucleoside sequence of DNA. Chemical stability. Replication. Reparation 78
3.4.2.3. Changes in DNA nucleotide sequences. Gene mutations 84
3.4.2.4. Elementary units of variability of genetic material. Mouton. Recon. 90
3.4.2.5. Functional classification of gene mutations 91
3.4.2.6. Mechanisms that reduce the adverse effect of gene mutations 92
3.4.3. Use of genetic information in life processes 93
3.4.3.1. The role of RNA in the implementation of hereditary information 93
3.4.3.2. Features of organization and expression of genetic information in pro- and eukaryotes 104
3.4.3.3. A gene is a functional unit of hereditary material. Relationship between gene and trait 115
3.4.4. Functional characteristics of gene 118
3.4.5. Biological significance of the gene level of organization of hereditary material 119
3.5. CHROMOSOMAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL 119
3.5.1. Some provisions of the chromosome theory of heredity 119
3.5.2. Physico-chemical organization of eukaryotic cell chromosomes 121
3.5.2.1. Chemical composition of chromosomes 121
3.5.2.2. Structural organization of chromatin 122
3.5.2.3. Morphology of chromosomes 128
3.5.2.4. Features of the spatial organization of genetic material in a prokaryotic cell 129
3.5.3. Manifestation of the main properties of the material of heredity and variability at the chromosomal level of its organization 130
3.5.3.1. Self-reproduction of chromosomes in the mitotic cycle of cells 131
3.5.3.2. Distribution of maternal chromosome material between daughter cells in mitosis 133
3.5.3.3. Changes in the structural organization of chromosomes. Chromosomal mutations 133
3.5.4. The importance of chromosome organization in the functioning and inheritance of the genetic apparatus 139
3.5.5. Biological significance of the chromosomal level of organization of hereditary material 142
3.6. GENOMIC LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF HEREDITARY MATERIAL 142
3.6.1. Genome. Genotype. Karyotype 142
3.6.2. Manifestation of the properties of hereditary material at the genomic level of its organization 144
3.6.2.1. Self-reproduction and maintenance of karyotype constancy in a number of cell generations 144
3.6.2.2. Mechanisms for maintaining the constancy of the karyotype in a number of generations of organisms 146
3.6.2.3. Recombination of hereditary material in the genotype. Combination variability 148
3.6.2.4. Changes in the genomic organization of hereditary material. Genomic mutations 152
3.6.3. Features of the organization of hereditary material in pro- and eukaryotes 154
3.6.4. Genome evolution 156
3.6.4.1. Genome of the putative common ancestor of pro- and eukaryotes 156
3.6.4.2. Evolution of the prokaryotic genome 157
3.6.4.3. The evolution of the eukaryotic genome 158
3.6.4.4. Movable genetic elements 161
3.6.4.5. The role of horizontal transfer of genetic material in the evolution of the genome 161
3.6.5. Characterization of the genotype as a dose-balanced system of interacting genes 162
3.6.5.1. The importance of maintaining the dose balance of genes in the genotype for the formation of a normal phenotype 162
3.6.5.2. Interactions between genes in genotype 165
3.6.6. Regulation of gene expression at the genomic level of organization of hereditary material 173
3.6.6.1. General principles genetic control of gene expression 175
3.6.6.2. The role of non-genetic factors in the regulation of gene activity 176
3.6.6.3. Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes 176
3.6.6.4. Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes 178
3.6.7. Biological significance of the genomic level of organization of hereditary material 181
CHAPTER 4
4.1. MOLECULAR GENETIC MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY IN HUMANS 184
4.2. CELLULAR MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY IN HUMANS 188
4.2.1. Somatic mutations 189
4.2.2. Generative mutations 191
SECTION III. ONTOGENETIC LEVEL OF LIFE ORGANIZATION 201
CHAPTER 5. REPRODUCTION 202
5.1. METHODS AND FORMS OF REPRODUCTION 202
5.2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION 204
5.2.1. Alternation of generations with asexual and sexual reproduction 207
5.3. SEX CELLS 208
5.3.1. Gametogenesis 210
5.3.2. Meiosis 212
5.4. ALTERNATION OF HAPLOID AND DIPLOID PHASES OF THE LIFE CYCLE 218
5.5. WAYS OF ACQUISITION BY ORGANISMS OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION 219
CHAPTER 6 . ONTOGENESIS AS A PROCESS OF REALIZATION OF HEREDITARY INFORMATION 221
6.1. PHENOTYPE OF THE ORGANISM. THE ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE FORMATION OF THE PHENOTYPE 221
6.1.1. Modification variability 222
6.1.2. The role of hereditary and environmental factors in determining the sex of an organism 224
6.1.2.1. Evidence for genetic sex determination 224
6.1.2.2. Evidence for the role of environmental factors in the development of sex traits 228
6.2. REALIZATION OF HEREDITARY INFORMATION IN INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT. MULTIGENIC FAMILIES 230
6.3. TYPES AND VARIANTS OF INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS 234
6.3.1. Patterns of inheritance of traits controlled by nuclear genes 234
6.3.1.1. Monogenic inheritance of traits. Autosomal and sex-linked inheritance 234
6.3.1.2. Simultaneous inheritance of several traits. Independent and linked inheritance 240
6.3.1.3. Inheritance of traits due to the interaction of non-allelic genes 246
6.3.2. Patterns of inheritance of extranuclear genes. Cytoplasmic inheritance 251
6.4. THE ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE FORMATION OF NORMAL AND PATHOLOGICALLY CHANGED HUMAN PHENOTYPE 253
6.4.1. Human hereditary diseases 254
6.4.1.1. Chromosomal diseases 254
6.4.1.2. Genetic (or Mendelian) diseases 257
6.4.1.3. Multifactorial diseases, or diseases with hereditary predisposition 260
6.4.1.4. Diseases with non-traditional type of inheritance 262
6.4.2. Features of a person as an object of genetic research 267
6.4.3. Methods for studying human genetics 268
6.4.3.1. Genealogical method 268
6.4.3.2. Twin Method 275
6.4.3.3. Population-statistical method 276
6.4.3.4. Methods of dermatoglyphics and palmoscopy 278
6.4.3.5. Methods of genetics of somatic cells 278
6.4.3.6. Cytogenetic method 280
6.4.3.7. Biochemical method 281
6.4.3.8. Methods for studying DNA in genetic research 282
6.4.4. Prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases 284
6.4.5. Medical genetic counseling 285
CHAPTER 7. PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS 288
7.1. STAGES. PERIODS AND STAGES OF ONTOGENESIS 288
7.2. MODIFICATIONS OF ONTOGENESIS PERIODS OF ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE 290
7.3. MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY FEATURES OF CHORDS EGGS 292
7.4. FERTILIZATION AND PARTHENOGENESIS 296
7.5. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT 298
7.5.1. Crushing 298
7.5.2. Gastrulation 303
7.5.3. Formation of organs and tissues 311
7.5.4. Provisory organs of vertebrate embryos 314
7.6. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT OF MAMMALS AND HUMANS 320
7.6.1. Periodization and early embryonic development 320
7.6.2. Examples of human organogenesis reflecting the evolution of the species 330
CHAPTER 8 . PATTERNS OF INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS 344
8.1. BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE BIOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT 344
8.2. MECHANISMS OF ONTOGENESIS 345
8.2.1. Cell division 345
8.2.2. Cell migration 347
8.2.3. Cell sorting 350
8.2.4. Cell death 352
8.2.5. Cell differentiation 356
8.2.6. Embryonic induction 366
8.2.7. Genetic control of development 373
8.3. INTEGRITY OF ONTOGENESIS 378
8.3.1. Determination 378
8.3.2. Embryonic regulation 380
8.3.3. Morphogenesis 384
8.3.4. Height 388
8.3.5. Integration of ontogeny 393
8.4. REGENERATION 393
8.5. OLD AND AGING. DEATH AS A BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENON 403
8.5.1. Changes in organs and organ systems during aging 404
8.5.2. The manifestation of aging at the molecular, subcellular and cellular levels 409
8.6. DEPENDENCE OF THE MANIFESTATION OF AGING ON THE GENOTYPE, CONDITIONS AND LIFESTYLES 412
8.6.1. Genetics of Aging 412
8.6.2. Effects of living conditions on the aging process 417
8.6.3. Influence on the aging process of lifestyle 423
8.6.4. Influence on the aging process of the endoecological situation 425
8.7. HYPOTHESES EXPLAINING THE MECHANISMS OF AGING 426
8.8. INTRODUCTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HUMAN LIFE LIFE 428
8.8.1. Statistical method for studying the patterns of life expectancy 429
8.8.2. The contribution of social and biological components to total mortality in historical time and in different populations 430
CHAPTER 9. THE ROLE OF DISTURBANCES IN ONTOGENESIS IN HUMAN PATHOLOGY
9.1. CRITICAL PERIODS IN HUMAN ONTOGENESIS 433
9.2. CLASSIFICATION OF CONGENITAL DEFECTS 435
9.3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DISTURBANCE OF THE MECHANISMS OF ONTOGENESIS IN THE FORMATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS 438

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Book 2.
FOREWORD 2
SECTION IV. POPULATION AND SPECIES LEVEL OF LIFE ORGANIZATION 3
CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGICAL SPECIES. POPULATION STRUCTURE OF SPECIES 4
10.1. CONCEPT OF VIEW 4
10.2. POPULATION CONCEPT 5
10.2.1. Ecological characteristic populations 6
10.2.2. Population genetic characteristics 7
10.2.3. allele frequencies. Hardy-Weinberg law 7
10.2.4. Place of species and populations in the evolutionary process 9
CHAPTER 11 SPECIFICATION IN NATURE. ELEMENTARY EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS 11
11.1. MUTATION PROCESS 11
11.2. POPULATION WAVES 12
11.3. ISOLATION 14
11.4. NATURAL SELECTION 17
11.5. GENETIC-AUTOMATIC PROCESSES (GENE DRIFT) 21
11.6. SPECIFICATION 22
11.7. HEREDITARY POLYMORPHISM OF NATURAL POPULATIONS. GENETIC LOAD 24
11.8. ADAPTATION OF ORGANISMS TO THE ENVIRONMENT 27
11.9. ORIGIN OF BIOLOGICAL FEASIBILITY 29
CHAPTER 12. ACTION OF ELEMENTARY EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS IN HUMAN POPULATIONS 32
12.1. POPULATION OF HUMANS. DEM, ISOLATE 32
12.2. INFLUENCE OF ELEMENTARY EVOLUTIONARY FACTORS ON THE GENE POOL OF HUMAN POPULATIONS 33
12.2.1. Mutation process 34
12.2.2. Population waves 35
12.2.3. Insulation 36
12.2.4. Genetic-automatic processes 38
12.2.5. Natural selection 41
12.3. GENETIC DIVERSITY IN HUMAN POPULATIONS 45
12.4. GENETIC CARGO IN HUMAN POPULATIONS 50
CHAPTER 13. REGULARITIES OF MACROEVOLUTION 51
13.1. EVOLUTION OF GROUPS OF ORGANISMS 52
13.1.1. Organization level 52
13.1.2. Types of group evolution 52
13.1.3. Forms of group evolution 55
13.1.4. Biological progress and biological regression 56
13.1.5. Empirical rules of group evolution 60
13.2. RELATIONSHIP OF ONTO- AND PHYLOGENESIS 61
13.2.1. Law of germinal similarity 61
13.2.2. Ontogeny - repetition of phylogenesis 62
13.2.3. Ontogeny - the basis of phylogeny 63
13.3. GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THE EVOLUTION OF ORGANS 67
13.3.1. Differentiation and integration in the evolution of organs 68
13.3.2. Patterns of morphofunctional transformations of organs 69
13.3.3. The emergence and disappearance of biological structures in phylogenesis 71
13.3.4. Atavistic malformations 74
13.3.5. Allogenic anomalies and malformations 75
13.4. The organism as a whole in historical and individual development. Correlative transformations of organs 76
13.5. MODERN SYSTEM OF THE ORGANIC WORLD 80
13.5.1. Types of nutrition and the main groups of living organisms in nature 81
13.5.2. Origin of multicellular animals 81
13.5.3. The main stages of the progressive evolution of multicellular animals 83
13.5.4. Characteristics of the chordate type 86
13.5.5. Systematics of the Chordata type 87
13.5.6. Subtype Cranial Acrania 87
13.5.7. Subtype Vertebrates Vertebrata 89
CHAPTER 14
14.1. Covers 92
14.2. LOCOMOTOR APPARATUS 96
14.2.1. Skeleton 96
14.2.1.1. Axial skeleton 96
14.2.1.2. Skeleton head 99
14.2.1.3. Limb skeleton 102
14.2.2. Muscular system 109
14.2.2.1. Visceral muscles 110
14.2.2.2. Somatic musculature 111
14.3. DIGESTIVE AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS 112
14.3.1. Mouth 114
14.3.2. Throat 117
14.3.3. Midgut and hindgut 119
14.3.4. Respiratory organs 121
14.4. circulatory system 123
14.4.1. The evolution of the general plan of the building circulatory system chordates 124
14.4.2. Phylogeny of arterial gill arches 129
14.5. URINARY SYSTEM 132
14.5.1. The evolution of the kidney 132
14.5.2. The evolution of the gonads 135
14.5.3. Evolution of the urogenital ducts 136
14.6. INTEGRATING SYSTEMS 138
14.6.1. Central nervous system 139
14.6.2. Endocrine system 143
14.6.2.1. Hormones 144
14.6.2.2. Endocrine glands 145
CHAPTER 15. ANTHROPOGENESIS AND THE FURTHER EVOLUTION OF HUMANS 149
15.1. THE PLACE OF MAN IN THE SYSTEM OF THE ANIMAL WORLD 149
15.2. METHODS FOR STUDYING HUMAN EVOLUTION 150
15.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MAIN STAGES OF ANTHROPOGENESIS 154
15.4. INTRA-SPECIES DIFFERENTIATION OF HUMANITY 159
15.4.1. Races and racegenesis 160
15.4.2. Adaptive ecological types of a person 164
15.4.3. The origin of adaptive ecological types 167
SECTION V . BIOGEOCENOTIC LEVEL OF LIFE ORGANIZATION 170
CHAPTER 16. GENERAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 170
16.1. BIOGEOCENOSIS - ELEMENTARY UNIT OF BIOGEOCENOTIC LEVEL OF LIFE ORGANIZATION 172
16.2. EVOLUTION OF BIOGEOCOENOSIS 177
CHAPTER 17. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ECOLOGY 179
17.1. HUMAN HABITAT 180
17.2. HUMAN AS AN OBJECT OF ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. HUMAN ADAPTATION TO THE ENVIRONMENT 182
17.3. ANTHROPOGENIC ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS 186
17.3.1. City 186
17.3.2. City as a habitat for people 188
17.3.3. Agrocenoses 189
17.4. THE ROLE OF ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS IN THE EVOLUTION OF SPECIES AND BIOGEOCOENOSIS 190
CHAPTER 18. MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY. GENERAL QUESTIONS 192
18.1. SUBJECT AND OBJECTIVES OF MEDICAL PARASITOLOGY 192
18.2. FORMS OF INTERSPECIES BIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS IN BIOCENOSES 194
18.3. CLASSIFICATION OF PARASITISM AND PARASITES 195
18.4. PREVALENCE OF PARASITISM IN NATURE 198
18.5. ORIGIN OF PARASITISM 198
18.6. ADAPTATION TO A PARASITIC WAY OF LIFE. MAIN TRENDS 200
18.7. PARASITE CYCLE AND HOST 205
18.8. HOST SUSCEPTIBILITY FACTORS TO THE PARASITE 207
18.9. HOST ACTION ON PARASITE 208
18.10. RESISTANCE OF PARASITES TO HOST IMMUNE REACTIONS 209
18.11. RELATIONSHIPS IN THE PARASITE-HOST SYSTEM AT THE LEVEL OF POPULATIONS 210
18.12. HOST SPECIFICITY OF PARASITES 212
18.13. NATURAL FOCAL DISEASES 213
CHAPTER 19. MEDICAL PROTOZOOLOGY 217
19.1. TYPE PROTOZOA 217
19.1.1. Sarcode class Sarcodina 218
19.1.2. Class Flagellates Flagellata 218
19.1.3. Infusoria class Infusoria 219
19.1.4. Class Sporozoa 219
19.2. Protozoa living in abdominal organs communicating with the external environment 220
19.2.1. Protozoa living in the oral cavity 220
19.2.2. Protozoa living in the small intestine 221
19.2.3. Protozoa living in the large intestine 223
19.2.4. Protozoa living in the genitals 225
19.2.5. Single-celled parasites living in the lungs 226
19.3. Protozoa living in tissues 227
19.3.1. Protozoa living in tissues and transmitted non-transmissively 228
19.3.2. Protozoa living in tissues and transmitted transmissibly 230
19.4. PROTOTOS - OPTIONAL HUMAN PARASITES 239
CHAPTER 20. MEDICAL HELMINTHOLOGY 240
20.1. TYPE FLAT WORMS PLATHELMINTHES 240
20.1.1. Class Flukes Trematoda 241
20.1.1.1. Flukes with one intermediate host living in the digestive system 244
20.1.1.2. Flukes with one intermediate host living in blood vessels 246
20.1.1.3. Flukes with two intermediate hosts 249
20.1.2. Class Tapeworms Cestoidea 255
20.1.2.1. Tapeworms whose life cycle is associated with the aquatic environment 258
20.1.2.2. Tapeworms whose life cycle is not related to the aquatic environment 260
20.1.2.3. Tapeworms that pass in the human body throughout their life cycle 266
20.2. TYPE ROUND WORMS NEMATHELMINTHES 267
20.2.1. Class Proper roundworms Nematoda 268
20.2.1.1. Roundworms - geohelminths 269
20.2.1.2. Roundworms - biohelminths 274
20.2.1.3. Roundworms that carry out only migration in the human body 280
CHAPTER 21. MEDICAL ARACCHNOENTOMOLOGY 281
21.1. CLASS ARACHNOIDEA 281
21.1.1. Detachment Ticks Acari 282
21.1.1.1. Ticks - temporary blood-sucking ectoparasites 282
21.1.1.2. Ticks - inhabitants of human habitation 288
21.1.1.3. Ticks are permanent parasites of humans 290
21.2. CLASS INSECTA 291
21.2.1. Synatropic insects that are not parasites 292
21.2.2. Insects - temporary blood-sucking parasites 296
21.2.3. Insects - permanent blood-sucking parasites 304
21.2.4. Insects - tissue and cavity endoparasites 306
CHAPTER 22
CHAPTER 23
23.1. ORIGIN OF TOXICITY IN THE ANIMAL WORLD 315
23.2. MAN AND POISONOUS ANIMALS 316
SECTION VI. MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE 318
CHAPTER 24 INTRODUCTION TO THE BIOSPHERE 318
24.1. MODERN CONCEPTS OF THE BIOSPHERE 318
24.2. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE BIOSPHERE 319
24.3. EVOLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE 325
CHAPTER 25
25.1. BIOGENESIS AND NOOGENESIS 326
25.2. WAYS OF IMPACT OF HUMANITY ON NATURE. ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS 327

Year of issue: 2003

Genre: Biology

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Quality: OCR

Description: The role of the course of biology is great not only in the natural sciences, but also in the ideological training of a doctor. The proposed material teaches a reasonable and consciously attentive attitude towards the surrounding nature, oneself and others as part of this nature, contributes to the development of a critical assessment of the consequences of human impact on the environment. Biological knowledge brings up a careful and respectful attitude towards children and the elderly. The opportunity to actively and virtually arbitrarily change the genetic constitution of people, which opened up at the turn of the century in connection with the development of genomics, immeasurably increases the doctor's responsibility, requiring him to strictly follow ethical standards that guarantee the observance of the interests of the patient. This most important circumstance is also reflected in the textbook "Biology".
When writing individual sections and chapters, the authors tried to reflect state of the art relevant areas of biological and bio medical science. Biomedicine is a building under construction. The number is rapidly increasing scientific facts. The most important theoretical provisions and the hypotheses put forward are the object of heated discussions, especially since modern biotechnologies are quickly finding their way into practice. On the other hand, a number of fundamental concepts that have remained unshakable for decades are being revised under the pressure of the latest data. In such conditions, authors often had to make a choice in favor of one or another point of view, in any case, arguing this choice by referring to the facts.
The authors feel a sense of sincere gratitude to the researchers whose works they used in the process of working on the textbook "Biology", apologize to scientists whose views, due to the limited volume of the publication, did not find sufficient coverage in it, and will gratefully accept and take into account in further work critical comments and wishes of colleagues and students.

"Biology"

LIFE AS A SPECIAL NATURAL PHENOMENON

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1.1. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGY
1.2. STRATEGY OF LIFE. ADJUSTMENT, PROGRESS, ENERGY AND INFORMATION SUPPLY
1.3. PROPERTIES OF LIFE
1.4. ORIGIN OF LIFE
1.5. ORIGIN OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
1.6. THE EMISSION OF MULTICELLULARITY
1.7. HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM. LEVELS OF LIFE ORGANIZATION
1.8. MANIFESTATION OF THE MAIN PROPERTIES OF LIFE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1.9. FEATURES OF THE MANIFESTATION OF BIOLOGICAL REGULARITIES IN PEOPLE. BIOSOCIAL NATURE OF HUMAN

CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR-GENETIC LEVELS OF LIFE ORGANIZATION - THE BASIS OF LIFE ACTIVITIES OF ORGANISMS

CELL - ELEMENTARY UNIT OF LIFE
2.1. CELL THEORY
2.2. TYPES OF CELL ORGANIZATION
2.3. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE EUKARYOTIC CELL
2.3.1. The principle of compartmentalization. biological membrane
2.3.2. The structure of a typical cell of a multicellular organism
2.3.3. Information flow
2.3.4. intracellular energy flow
2.3.5. Intracellular flow of substances
2.3.6. Other intracellular mechanisms of general importance
2.3.7. The cell as a whole structure. Colloidal system of protoplasm
2.4. REGULARITIES OF THE EXISTENCE OF A CELL IN TIME
2.4.1. Cell life cycle
2.4.2. Cell changes in the mitotic cycle
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL
3.1. HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY - FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF LIVING
3.2. HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF CONCEPTS ON THE ORGANIZATION OF THE MATERIAL SUBSTRATE OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY
3.3. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE GENETIC APPARATUS
3.4. GENE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF THE GENETIC APPARATUS
3.4.1. Chemical organization of the gene

3.4.1.1. Structure of DNA. Model by J. Watson and F. Crick
3.4.1.2. A way of recording genetic information in a DNA molecule. Biological code and its properties

3.4.2 Properties of DNA as a substance of heredity and variability

3.4.2.1. Self-reproduction of hereditary material. DNA replication
3.4.2.2. Mechanisms for maintaining the nucleoside sequence of DNA Chemical stability. Replication. Repair
3.4.2.3. Changes in nucleotide sequences of DNA. Gene mutations
3.4.2.4. Elementary units of genetic material variability Mouton. Recon
3.4.2.5. Functional classification of gene mutations
3.4.2.6. Mechanisms that reduce the adverse effect of gene mutations

3.4.3. Use of genetic information in life processes

3.4.3.1. The role of RNA in the implementation of hereditary information
3.4.3.2. Features of organization and expression of genetic information of pro- and eukaryotes
3.4.3.3. A gene is a functional unit of hereditary material. Relationship between gene and trait

3.4.4. Functional characterization of the gene
3.4.5. The biological significance of the gene level of organization of hereditary material
3.5. CHROMOSOMAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL
3.5.1. Some provisions of the chromosome theory of heredity
3.5.2. Physico-chemical organization of eukaryotic cell chromosomes

3.5.2.1. Chemical composition of chromosomes
3.5.2.2. Structural organization of chromatin
3.5.2.3. Morphology of chromosomes
3.5.2.4. Features of the spatial organization of the genetic material of a prokaryotic cell

3.5.3. Manifestation of the main properties of the material of heredity and variability at the chromosomal level of its organization

3.5.3.1. Self-reproduction of chromosomes in the mitotic cell cycle
3.5.3.2. Distribution of maternal chromosome material between daughter cells in mitosis
3.5.3.3. Changes in the structural organization of chromosomes. Chromosomal mutations

3.5.4. The importance of chromosomal organization in the functioning and inheritance of the genetic apparatus
3.5.5. Biological significance of the chromosomal level of organization of hereditary material
3.6. GENOMIC LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION OF HEREDITARY MATERIAL
3.6.1. Genome. Genotype. Karyotype
3.6.2. Manifestation of the properties of hereditary material at the genomic level of its organization

3.6.2.1. Self-reproduction and maintenance of karyotype constancy in a number of cell generations
3.6.2.2. Mechanisms for maintaining the constancy of the karyotype in a number of generations of organisms
3.6.2.3. Recombination of hereditary material in the genotype. Combination variability
3.6.2.4. Changes in the genomic organization of hereditary material. Genomic mutations

3.6.3. Features of the organization of hereditary material in pro and eukaryotes
3.6.4. Genome evolution

3.6.4.1. The genome of a putative common ancestor of pro- and eukaryotes
3.6.4.2. Evolution of the prokaryotic genome
3.6.4.3. Eukaryotic genome evolution
3.6.4.4. Movable genetic elements
3.6.4.5. The role of horizontal transfer of genetic material in the evolution of the genome

3.6.5. Characterization of the genotype as a dose-balanced system of interacting genes

3.6.5.1. The importance of maintaining the dose balance of genes in the genotype for the formation of a normal phenotype
3.6.5.2. Interactions between genes in a genotype

3.6.6. Regulation of gene expression at the genomic level of organization of hereditary material

3.6.6.1. General principles of genetic control of gene expression
3.6.6.2. The role of non-genetic factors in the regulation of gene activity
3.6.6.3. Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes
3.6.6.4. Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes

3.6.7. Biological significance of the genomic level of organization of hereditary material
CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR GENETIC MECHANISMS OF PROVIDING THE PROPERTIES OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY IN HUMANS
4.1. MOLECULAR GENETIC MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY IN HUMANS
4.2. CELLULAR MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY AND VARIABILITY IN HUMANS
4.2.1. Somatic mutations
4.2.2. generative mutations

ONTOGENETIC LEVEL OF LIFE ORGANIZATION

BREEDING
5.1. METHODS AND FORMS OF REPRODUCTION
5.2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
5.2.1. Alternation of generations with asexual and sexual reproduction
5.3. SEX CELLS
5.3.1. Gametogenesis
5.3.2. Meiosis
5.4. ALTERNATION OF HAPLOID AND DIPLOID PHASES OF THE LIFE CYCLE
5.5. WAYS OF ACQUISITION OF BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION BY ORGANISMS
ONTOGENESIS AS A PROCESS OF REALIZATION OF HEREDITARY INFORMATION
6.1. PHENOTYPE OF THE ORGANISM. THE ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE FORMATION OF THE PHENOTYPE
6.1.1. Modification variability
6.1.2. The role of hereditary and environmental factors in determining the sex of an organism

6.1.2.1. Evidence for genetic sex determination
6.1.2.2. Evidence for the role of environmental factors in the development of sex traits

6.2. REALIZATION OF HEREDITARY INFORMATION IN INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT. MULTIGENIC FAMILIES
6.3. TYPES AND VARIANTS OF INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERISTICS
6.3.1. Patterns of inheritance of traits controlled by nuclear genes

6.3.1.1. Monogenic inheritance of traits. Autosomal and sex-linked inheritance
6.3.1.2. Simultaneous inheritance of several traits. Independent and linked inheritance
6.3.1.3. Inheritance of traits due to the interaction of non-allelic genes

6.3.2. Patterns of inheritance of extranuclear genes. Cytoplasmic inheritance
6.4. THE ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT IN THE FORMATION OF NORMAL AND PATHOLOGICALLY CHANGED HUMAN PHENOTYPE
6.4.1. Human hereditary diseases

6.4.1.1. Chromosomal diseases
6.4.1.2. Genetic (or Mendelian) diseases
6.4.1.3. Multifactorial diseases, or diseases with a hereditary predisposition
6.4.1.4. Diseases with an unconventional type of inheritance

6.4.2. Features of a person as an object of genetic research
6.4.3. Methods for studying human genetics

6.4.3.1. genealogical method
6.4.3.2. twin method
6.4.3.3. Population-statistical method
6.4.3.4. Methods of dermatoglyphics and palmoscopy
6.4.3.5. Methods of genetics of somatic cells
6.4.3.6. Cytogenetic method
6.4.3.7. Biochemical method
6.4.3.8. Methods for studying DNA in genetic research

6.4.4. Prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases
6.4.5. Medical genetic counseling
PERIODIZATION OF ONTOGENESIS
7.1. STAGES. PERIODS AND STAGES OF ONTOGENESIS
7.2. MODIFICATIONS OF ONTOGENESIS PERIODS OF ECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY SIGNIFICANCE
7.3. MORPHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY FEATURES OF CHORDS EGGS
7.4. FERTILIZATION AND PARTHENOGENESIS
7.5. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT
7.5.1. Splitting up
7.5.2. gastrulation
7.5.3. Formation of organs and tissues
7.5.4. Provisory organs of vertebrate embryos
7.6. EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT OF MAMMALS AND HUMANS
7.6.1. Periodization and early embryonic development
7.6.2. Examples of human organogenesis reflecting the evolution of a species
PATTERNS OF INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS
8.1. BASIC CONCEPTS IN THE BIOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT
8.2. MECHANISMS OF ONTOGENESIS
8.2.1. cell division
8.2.2. Cell migration
8.2.3. cell sorting
8.2.4. cell death
8.2.5. Cell differentiation
8.2.6. Embryonic induction
8.2.7. Genetic control of development
8.3. INTEGRITY OF ONTOGENESIS
8.3.1. determination
8.3.2. Embryonic regulation
8.3.3. Morphogenesis
8.3.4. Growth
8.3.5. Integration of ontogeny
8.4. REGENERATION
8.5. OLD AND AGING. DEATH AS A BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENON
8.5.1. Changes in organs and organ systems during aging
8.5.2. The manifestation of aging at the molecular, subcellular and cellular levels
8.6. DEPENDENCE OF THE MANIFESTATION OF AGING ON THE GENOTYPE, CONDITIONS AND LIFESTYLES
8.6.1. The genetics of aging
8.6.2. Impact on the aging process of living conditions
8.6.3. Influence on the aging process of lifestyle
8.6.4. Influence on the aging process of the endoecological situation
8.7. HYPOTHESES EXPLAINING THE MECHANISMS OF AGING
8.8. INTRODUCTION TO THE BIOLOGY OF HUMAN LIFE LIFE
8.8.1. Statistical method for studying the patterns of life expectancy
8.8.2. The contribution of social and biological components to total mortality in historical time and in different populations
THE ROLE OF DISTURBANCES IN THE MECHANISMS OF ONTOGENESIS IN HUMAN PATHOLOGY
9.1. CRITICAL PERIODS IN HUMAN ONTOGENESIS
9.2. CLASSIFICATION OF CONGENITAL DEFECTS
9.3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DISTURBANCE OF THE MECHANISMS OF ONTOGENESIS IN THE FORMATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS

BIOLOGY

Under the editorship of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor V.N. Yarygin

In two books

Book 1

Fifth edition, revised and supplemented Recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

as a textbook for students of medical specialties of higher educational institutions

Moscow "High School" 2003

UDC 574/578 BBK 28.0 B 63

V.N. Yarygin, V.I. Vasilyeva, I.N. Volkov, V.V. Sinelytsikova

Reviewer:

Department of Medical Biology and Genetics of the Tver State Medical Academy (Head of the Department - Prof. G.V. Khomullo);

Department of Biology of the Izhevsk State Medical Academy (Head of the Department - Prof. V.A. Glumova)

B 63 Biology. In 2 books. Book. 1: Study. for medical specialist. Universities / V.N. Yarygin, V.I. Vasilyeva, I.N. Volkov, V.V. Sinelytsikova;

Ed. V.N. Yarygin. - 5th ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2003.- 432

UDC 574/578 BBK 28.0

ISBN 5-06-004588-9 (book 1)

The book (1st and 2nd) highlights the basic properties of life and evolutionary processes consistently at the molecular genetic, ontogenetic (1st book), population-species and biogeocenotic (2nd book) levels of dimensions in ontogenesis and human populations , their significance for medical practice. Attention is paid to the biosocial essence of man and his role in relationships with nature.

The textbook reflects the modern achievements of biological science, which play an important role in practical public health.

For students of medical specialties of universities.

ISBN 5-06-004588-9 (book 1) ISBN 5-06-004590-0

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Vysshaya Shkola publishing house, and its reproduction (reproduction) in any way without the consent of the publisher is prohibited.

FOREWORD

Biological training plays a fundamental and increasingly growing role in the structure of medical education. Being a fundamental natural science discipline, biology reveals the laws of origin and development, as well as the necessary conditions for the preservation of life as a special phenomenon of the nature of our planet. Man, distinguished by his undoubted originality in comparison with other living forms, nevertheless represents a natural result and stage in the development of life on Earth, therefore his very existence directly depends on general biological (molecular, cellular, systemic) mechanisms of life.

The connection of people with wildlife is not limited to the framework of historical kinship. Man was and remains an integral part of this nature, influences it and at the same time is influenced by it. environment. The nature of such bilateral relations affects the state of human health.

The development of industry, agriculture, transport, population growth, the intensification of production, information overload, the complication of relations in families and at work give rise to serious social and environmental problems: chronic psycho-emotional stress, pollution of the living environment that is hazardous to health, destruction of forests, destruction of natural communities of plant and animal organisms, deterioration in the quality of recreational areas. The search for effective ways to overcome these problems is impossible without understanding the biological patterns of intraspecific and interspecific relationships of organisms, the nature of the interaction of living beings, including humans, and their habitats. What has already been noted is enough to understand that many branches of the science of life, even in its classical format,

have obvious applied medical significance.

In fact, in our time, in solving the problems of health protection and disease control, biological knowledge and “high biotechnologies” (genetic, cell engineering) are beginning to occupy not only an important, but a truly decisive place. Indeed, the past XX century, along with the fact that it, in accordance with the main directions of scientific and technological progress, was characterized by chemicalization, technization, computerization of medicine, was also the century of the transformation of the latter into biomedicine.

An idea of the stages of this transformation, which started in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, is given by the metaphor of the change of “generations of hunters”, which belongs to Arthur Kornberg, Nobel Prize winner in 1959 for the discovery of the mechanism of biological synthesis of nucleic acids. At each of the successive stages, biology enriched the world with outstanding fundamental discoveries or technologies, the further development and use of which in the interests of medicine allowed public health to achieve decisive successes in one area or another in the fight against human ailments.

AT In the first decades of the last century, according to A. Kornberg, the leading role belonged to the "hunters" for microbes, whose research results are associated with amazing achievements in world and domestic health care in solving the problem of controlling infections, especially especially dangerous ones.

In the second quarter of the 20th century, the leading position passed to the "hunters" for vitamins, in the 50-60s - for enzymes, at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries - to the "hunters" for genes. The above list can also be supplemented by generations of "hunters" for hormones, tissue growth factors, receptors for biologically active molecules, for cells participating in the immunological surveillance of the protein and cellular composition of the body, and others. However long this list would not be, it is obvious that the "hunt" for genes has a qualitatively special place in it.

AT nowadays the main task of such a “hunt”, which has already taken shape in an independent scientific and practical discipline - genomics, consists in finding out the order of arrangement of nucleotide pairs in DNA molecules or, in other words, reading the DNA texts of human genomes (the "human genome" project) and other organisms. It is not difficult to see that research in this direction gives doctors access to the content of primary genetic information contained in the genome of each individual person (gene diagnostics), which, in fact, determines the features of the process. individual development organism, many of its properties and qualities in adulthood. This access creates the prospect of targeted changes in information in order to combat diseases or predisposition to them (gene therapy, gene prophylaxis), as well as providing each person with biologically sound recommendations for choosing, for example, the optimal region for living, diet, type labor activity, in

in a broader sense, to the construction of a lifestyle in accordance with the personal genetic constitution in the interests of one's own health.

population biology, and phylogeny - from positions that reveal the natural history of certain malformations.

The chosen approach contributes to the formation of a genetic, ontogenetic and ecological way of thinking among students, which is absolutely necessary for a modern doctor who connects the health of his patients with the combined action of three main factors: heredity, living environment and lifestyle.

In accordance with the main directions and "breakthrough zones" of modern biomedicine, the greatest additions and changes in this edition relate to the sections of genetics, ontogenesis, human population biology, and anthropogenesis.

To understand the content of the biological foundations of human life and development in their fullest extent, the material is presented according to the universal levels of life organization: molecular-genetic, cellular, organismal, population-species, ecosystem. The presence of these levels reflects the structure and necessary conditions of the process historical development, in connection with which the laws inherent in them manifest themselves in a more or less typical way in all living forms, without exception, including humans.

The role of the course of biology is great not only in the natural sciences, but also in the ideological training of a doctor. The proposed material teaches a reasonable and consciously attentive attitude towards the surrounding nature, oneself and others as part of this nature, contributes to the development of a critical assessment of the consequences of human impact on the environment. Biological knowledge brings up a careful and respectful attitude towards children and the elderly. The opportunity to actively and virtually arbitrarily change the genetic constitution of people, which opened up at the turn of the century in connection with the development of genomics, immeasurably increases the doctor's responsibility, requiring him to strictly follow ethical standards that guarantee the observance of the interests of the patient. This important circumstance is also reflected in the textbook.

When writing individual sections and chapters, the authors sought to reflect the current state of the relevant areas of biological and biomedical science. Biomedicine is a building under construction. The number of scientific facts is rapidly increasing. The most important theoretical provisions and put forward hypotheses are the object of heated discussions, especially since modern biotechnologies are quickly finding their way into practice. On the other hand, a number of fundamental concepts that have remained unshakable for decades are being revised under the pressure of the latest data. In such conditions, authors often had to make a choice in favor of one or another point of view, in any case, arguing this choice by referring to the facts.

The authors feel a sense of sincere gratitude to the researchers whose works they used in the process of working on the textbook, apologize to scientists whose views, due to the limited volume of the publication, did not find sufficient coverage in it, and will gratefully accept and take into account critical comments and wishes of colleagues and students.

INTRODUCTION

The term biology (from the Greek bios - life, logos - science) was introduced in early XIX in. independently J.-B. Lamarck and G. Treviranus to designate the science of life as a special natural phenomenon. Currently, it is also used in a different sense, referring to groups of organisms, up to the species (biology of microorganisms, biology of the reindeer, human biology), biocenoses (biology of the Arctic basin), individual structures (biology of the cell).

The subject of biology academic discipline serves life in all its manifestations: structure, physiology, behavior, individual (ontogenesis) and historical (evolution, phylogenesis) development of organisms, their relationship with each other and with the environment.

Modern biology is a complex, a system of sciences. Separate biological sciences or disciplines arose as a result of a process of differentiation, a gradual isolation of relatively narrow areas of study and knowledge of living nature. This, as a rule, intensifies and deepens research in the relevant direction. Thus, thanks to the study of animals, plants, protozoa, microorganisms, viruses and phages in the organic world, zoology, botany, protistology, microbiology, and virology emerged as large independent areas.

The study of patterns, processes and mechanisms of individual development of organisms, heredity and variability, storage, transmission and use of biological information, providing life processes with energy is the basis for highlighting embryology, developmental biology, genetics, molecular biology and bioenergetics. Studies of the structure, functional functions, behavior, relationships of organisms with the environment, the historical development of wildlife led to the isolation of such disciplines as morphology, physiology, ethology, ecology, and evolutionary doctrine. Interest in the problems of aging, caused by an increase in the average life expectancy of people, stimulated the development of age biology (gerontology).

To understand the biological foundations of development, life and ecology

specific representatives of the animal and plant world, an appeal to general issues the essence of life, the levels of its organization, the mechanisms of the existence of life in time and space. Most generic properties and patterns of development and existence of organisms and their communities are studied by general biology.

The information obtained by each of the sciences is combined, complementing and enriching each other, and manifests itself in a generalized form, in patterns known by man, which either directly or with some originality (due to the social nature of people) extend their effect to man.

The second half of the 20th century is rightly called the century of biology. Such an assessment of the role of biology in the life of mankind seems even more justified.

in coming XXI century. To date, life science has obtained important results in the study of heredity, photosynthesis, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by plants, the synthesis of hormones, and other regulators of life processes. Already in the foreseeable future, through the use of genetically modified plant and animal organisms, bacteria, the problems of providing people with food necessary for medicine and agriculture drugs, biologically active substances and energy

in in sufficient quantity, despite the growth of the population and the reduction of natural fuel reserves. Research in the field of genomics and genetic engineering, cell biology and cell engineering, and the synthesis of growth substances open up prospects for replacing defective genes in individuals with hereditary diseases, stimulating regenerative processes, controlling reproduction and physiological cell death, and, consequently, influencing malignant growth.

Biology is one of the leading branches of natural science. High level its development serves necessary condition progress of medical science and public health.

LIFE AS A SPECIAL NATURAL PHENOMENON

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF LIFE

1.1. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGY

Interest in the knowledge of the world of living beings arose at the earliest stages of the emergence of mankind, reflecting the practical needs of people. For them, this world was a source of livelihood, as well as certain dangers to life and health. The natural desire to know whether one should avoid meeting certain animals and plants, or, on the contrary, use them for one's own purposes, explains why initially people's interest in living forms manifests itself in attempts to classify them, subdivide them into useful and dangerous, pathogenic, representing nutritional value, suitable for the manufacture of clothing, household items, satisfying aesthetic requests.

With the accumulation of specific knowledge, along with the idea of

The diversity of organisms gave rise to the idea of the unity of all living things. The importance of this idea for medicine is especially great, since it indicates the universality of biological laws for the entire organic world, including humans. In a sense, the history of modern biology as a science of life is a chain of major discoveries and generalizations that confirm the validity of this idea and reveal its content.

The most important scientific proof of the unity of all living things was cell theory T. Schwannai M. Schleiden (1839). Opening cellular structure plant and animal organisms, the understanding that all cells (despite the differences in shape, size, some details chemical organization) are built and function in a generally identical way, gave impetus to an exceptionally fruitful study of the patterns underlying the morphology, physiology, and individual development of living beings.

The discovery of fundamental laws of heredity biology owes G.

Mendel (1865), G. de Vries, K. Correns and K. Cermak (1900), T. Morgan (1910-1916), J. Watson and F. Crick (1953). These laws reveal the general mechanism for the transmission of hereditary information from cell to cell, and through cells

From individual to individual and its redistribution within species. The laws of heredity are important in substantiating the idea of the unity of the organic world; thanks to them, the role of such important biological phenomena as sexual reproduction, ontogeny, and generational change becomes clear.

The ideas about the unity of all living things have been thoroughly confirmed in the results of studies of biochemical (metabolic, metabolic) and biophysical mechanisms of cell vital activity. Although the beginning of such research dates back to the second half of the 19th century, the most convincing achievements molecular biology, which became an independent direction of biological science in the 50s. XX century, which is associated with the description by J. Watson and F. Crick (1953) of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). On the present stage In the development of molecular biology and genetics, a new scientific and practical direction arose - genomics, which has as its main task the reading of the DNA texts of the genomes of humans and other organisms. Based on access to personal biological information, its purposeful change is possible, including by introducing genes from other species. This possibility is the most important proof of the unity and universality of the basic mechanisms of life.

Molecular biology focuses on the study of the role of biological macromolecules (nucleic acids, proteins) in the processes of vital activity, the patterns of storage, transmission and use of hereditary information by cells. Molecular biological studies have revealed the universal physical and chemical mechanisms on which such universal properties of living things depend, such as heredity, variability, specificity

biological structures and functions, reproduction in a series of generations of cells and organisms of a certain structure.

The cell theory, the laws of heredity, the achievements of biochemistry, biophysics and molecular biology testify in favor of the unity of the organic world in its current state. The fact that life on the planet is a single whole in historical terms is substantiated the theory of evolution. The foundations of this theory were laid by Charles Darwin (1858). It received its further development, associated with the achievements of genetics and population biology, in the works of A. N. Severtsov, N. I. Vavilov, R. Fisher, S. S. Chetverikov, F. R. Dobzhansky, N. V. Timofeev- Resovsky, S. Wright, I. I. Schmalhausen, whose fruitful scientific activity belongs to the 20th century.

Evolutionary theory explains the unity of the world of living beings the commonality of their origin. She names the ways, methods and mechanisms that over several billion years have led to the currently observed diversity of living forms, equally adapted to the environment, but differing in the level of morphophysiological organization. The general conclusion to which the theory arrives

evolution consists in the assertion that living forms are related to each other by genetic relationship, the degree of which varies for representatives of different groups. This relationship finds its concrete expression in the succession in a number of generations of fundamental molecular, cellular and systemic mechanisms of development and life support. Such continuity is combined with variability, which makes it possible, on the basis of these mechanisms, to achieve a higher level of fitness of the biological organization.

The modern theory of evolution draws attention to the conventionality of the line between living and inanimate nature between wildlife and man. The results of studying the molecular and atomic composition of cells and tissues that build the bodies of organisms, obtaining in a chemical laboratory substances that are characteristic of only living things in natural conditions, proved the possibility of a transition in the history of the Earth from inanimate to living. The appearance on the planet of a social being - man - does not contradict the laws of biological evolution. Cellular organization, physico-chemical and genetic laws are inseparable from its existence, just like any other organism. The evolutionary theory shows the origins of the biological mechanisms of development and life of people, i.e. of what may be called biological heritage.

In classical biology, the relationship of organisms belonging to different groups, were established by comparing them in the adult state, in embryogenesis, searching for transitional fossil forms. Modern biology approaches this problem also by studying differences in the nucleotide sequences of DNA or the amino acid sequences of proteins. According to their main results, the evolution schemes compiled on the basis of the classical and molecular biological approaches coincide (Fig. 1.1).

BIOLOGY

Under the editorship of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor V.N. Yarygin

In two books

Book 1

Fifth edition, revised and enlarged

as a textbook for medical students

institutions of higher education

Moscow "High School" 2003

V.N. Yarygin, V.I. Vasilyeva, I.N. Volkov, V.V. Sinelytsikova

Reviewer:

Department of Medical Biology and Genetics of the Tver State Medical Academy (Head of the Department - Prof. G.V. Khomullo);

Department of Biology of the Izhevsk State Medical Academy (Head of the Department - Prof. V.A. Glumova)

B 63 Biology. In 2 books. Book. 1: Study. for medical specialist. Universities / V.N. Yarygin, V.I. Vasilyeva, I.N. Volkov, V.V. Sinelytsikova;

Ed. V.N. Yarygin. - 5th ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2003.- 432 p.: ill.

ISBN 5-06-004588-9 (book 1)

The book (1st and 2nd) highlights the basic properties of life and evolutionary processes consistently at the molecular genetic, ontogenetic (1st book), population-species and biogeocenotic (2nd book) levels of dimensions in ontogenesis and human populations , their significance for medical practice. Attention is paid to the biosocial essence of man and his role in relationships with nature.

The textbook reflects the modern achievements of biological science, which play an important role in practical public health.

For students of medical specialties of universities.

ISBN 5-06-004590-0

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Vysshaya Shkola publishing house, and its reproduction (reproduction) in any way without the consent of the publisher is prohibited.

FOREWORD

The connection of people with wildlife is not limited to the framework of historical kinship. Man was and remains an integral part of this nature, influences it and at the same time is influenced by the environment. The nature of such bilateral relations affects the state of human health.

The development of industry, agriculture, transport, population growth, intensification of production, information overload, complication of relationships in families and at work give rise to serious social and environmental problems: chronic psycho-emotional stress, pollution of the living environment that is dangerous to health, destruction of forests, destruction of natural communities of plants and animal organisms, reducing the quality of recreational areas. The search for effective ways to overcome these problems is impossible without understanding the biological patterns of intraspecific and interspecific relationships of organisms, the nature of the interaction of living beings, including humans, and their habitats. What has already been noted is enough to make it clear that many branches of the science of life, even in its classical format, have obvious applied medical significance.

In the first decades of the last century, according to A. Kornberg, the leading role belonged to the "hunters" for microbes, whose research results are associated with amazing achievements in world and domestic health care in solving the problem of controlling infections, especially dangerous ones.

Nowadays, the main task of such a "hunt", which has already taken shape in an independent scientific and practical discipline - genomics, is to find out the order of arrangement of nucleotide pairs in DNA molecules or, in other words, to read the DNA texts of human genomes (the "human genome" project) and other organisms. It is not difficult to see that research in this direction gives doctors access to the content of primary genetic information contained in the genome of each individual person (gene diagnostics), which, in fact, determines the features of the process of individual development of the organism, many of its properties and qualities in adulthood. This access creates the prospect of targeted changes in information in order to combat diseases or predisposition to them (gene therapy, gene prophylaxis), as well as providing each person with biologically sound recommendations for choosing, for example, the optimal region for living, diet, type of work, in a broad sense. to the construction of a lifestyle according to the personal genetic constitution in the interests of one's own health.

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n1.doc

BIOLOGY

Under the editorship of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Professor V.N. Yarygin

In two books

Book 1

Fifth edition, revised and enlarged

as a textbook for medical students

institutions of higher education

Moscow "High School" 2003

V.N. Yarygin, V.I. Vasilyeva, I.N. Volkov, V.V. Sinelytsikova
Reviewer:

Department of Medical Biology and Genetics of the Tver State Medical Academy (Head of the Department - Prof. G.V. Khomullo);

Department of Biology of the Izhevsk State Medical Academy (Head of the Department - Prof. V.A. Glumova)
B 63 Biology. In 2 books. Book. 1: Study. for medical specialist. Universities / V.N. Yarygin, V.I. Vasilyeva, I.N. Volkov, V.V. Sinelytsikova;

Ed. V.N. Yarygin. - 5th ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 2003.- 432 p.: ill.

ISBN 5-06-004588-9 (book 1)

The book (1st and 2nd) highlights the basic properties of life and evolutionary processes consistently at the molecular genetic, ontogenetic (1st book), population-species and biogeocenotic (2nd book) levels of dimensions in ontogenesis and human populations , their significance for medical practice. Attention is paid to the biosocial essence of man and his role in relationships with nature.

The textbook reflects the modern achievements of biological science, which play an important role in practical public health.

For students of medical specialties of universities.

ISBN 5-06-004590-0

The original layout of this publication is the property of the Vysshaya Shkola publishing house, and its reproduction (reproduction) in any way without the consent of the publisher is prohibited.

FOREWORD

The connection of people with wildlife is not limited to the framework of historical kinship. Man was and remains an integral part of this nature, influences it and at the same time is influenced by the environment. The nature of such bilateral relations affects the state of human health.

To understand the content of the biological foundations of human life and development in their fullest extent, the material is presented according to the universal levels of life organization: molecular-genetic, cellular, organismal, population-species, ecosystem. The presence of these levels reflects the structure and the necessary conditions for the process of historical development, in connection with which the laws inherent in them manifest themselves in a more or less typical way in all living forms without exception, including humans.

INTRODUCTION

Term biology(from Greek. bios - life, logos - science) was introduced at the beginning of the 19th century. independently J.-B. Lamarck and G. Treviranus to designate the science of life as a special natural phenomenon. Currently, it is also used in a different sense, referring to groups of organisms, up to the species (biology of microorganisms, biology of the reindeer, human biology), biocenoses (biology of the Arctic basin), individual structures (biology of the cell).

The subject of biology as an academic discipline is life in all its manifestations: structure, physiology, behavior, individual (ontogenesis) and historical (evolution, phylogenesis) development of organisms, their relationship with each other and with the environment.

Modern biology is a complex, a system of sciences. Separate biological sciences or disciplines arose as a result of the process of differentiation, the gradual isolation of relatively narrow areas of study and knowledge of living nature. This, as a rule, intensifies and deepens research in the relevant direction. Thus, thanks to the study of animals, plants, protozoa, microorganisms, viruses and phages in the organic world, zoology, botany, protistology, microbiology, and virology emerged as large independent areas.

To understand the biological foundations of the development, life and ecology of specific representatives of the animal and plant world, it is inevitable to address general issues of the essence of life, the levels of its organization, and the mechanisms of life's existence in time and space. The most universal properties and patterns of development and existence of organisms and their communities are studied by general biology.

The second half of the 20th century is rightly called age of biology. Such an assessment of the role of biology in the life of mankind seems to be even more justified in the 21st century. To date, life science has obtained important results in the study of heredity, photosynthesis, the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by plants, the synthesis of hormones, and other regulators of life processes. Already in the foreseeable future, through the use of genetically modified plant and animal organisms, bacteria, the problems of providing people with food, medicines necessary for medicine and agriculture, biologically active substances and energy in sufficient quantities can be solved, despite population growth and a decrease in natural fuel reserves. Research in the field of genomics and genetic engineering, cell biology and cell engineering, and the synthesis of growth substances open up prospects for replacing defective genes in individuals with hereditary diseases, stimulating regenerative processes, controlling reproduction and physiological cell death, and, consequently, influencing malignant growth.

Biology is one of the leading branches of natural science. The high level of its development is a necessary condition for the progress of medical science and public health.