Electricity and magnetism. Quantum theory of magnetism
15:07 13/03/2018👁 313
We are accustomed to the fact that magnetic processes occur mainly in small, but important details all sorts of technical devices and are associated with subtle quantum mechanical phenomena, and in articles about them that pretend to be popular, the mysterious and obscure word “spin” is repeated every now and then. But magnetism also happens in space, and there it looks completely different.
Astronomers have found that many celestial bodies, for example or ours, are giant magnets, and the dimensions of the magnetic field are comparable to the dimensions of the celestial body itself. The substance that makes up the Sun - solar plasma - is very hot, and the interstellar gas in the Milky Way is very tenuous. Therefore, the magnetic field in them is not associated with the ordering of spins, as in ferromagnets, but with some processes belonging to the field of classical physics, which, we hope, is still taught in high school.
Cosmic magnetic fields are significantly stronger than the fields we are used to. You should not directly compare the magnetic field strengths in a DVD player, cell phone and a clock with a field of the Sun or galaxy. For bodies of very different sizes, it is necessary to choose scales commensurate with them. A careless student skipped classes and, making excuses, says that he could not get to school because the magnetic field near the school was too strong. It is not difficult to foresee the reaction of parents... However, to explain the movements of cosmic media, this explanation is quite natural - it is the magnetic field that prevents the cloud of plasma ejected by the Sun from reaching the surface of the Earth.
The Earth's magnetic field is the only example of cosmic magnetism that can be observed with the naked eye (Fig. 1). An aurora is the visualization of the Earth's magnetic field by charged particles, similar to the visualization of a laser beam by dust in the air. The compass needle points north, because it itself is a small ferromagnet, its properties are determined by those very spins. But why is the Earth itself a magnet and why is it magnetic pole approximately coincides with the geographical one?
There are iron ore deposits on Earth, the magnetization of which contributes something to the geomagnetic field and creates magnetic anomalies, for example the Kursk magnetic anomaly. But they introduce slight distortions into the general (as they say, the main) geomagnetic field. This field is formed somewhere deep in the Earth, and the temperature there is high enough for ferromagnets to be out of the question.
What processes lead to the formation of magnetic fields of celestial bodies - and galaxies? The choice is small: we are in the field of classical physics, and it knows only one process, which, in principle, can lead to an increase in the magnetic field. This is the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. At school they tell (and sometimes show) that when a conducting frame moves in a magnetic field, a current begins to flow in it. This induced or induced current also creates a magnetic field. Could it happen that this induced field will add up to the original one so that the total magnetic field increases? Almost a century ago, in 1919, physicist Joseph Larmore realized that it was the induced current in the depths of the Sun that was the only chance to explain the magnetic field of our star without resorting to fantastic hypotheses about some new interactions (such hypotheses were not the issue, but that’s all they could not stand comparison with reality).
Larmore's short note (it was only one page) turned out to be the first step in studying the process of self-excitation of a magnetic field in moving conducting media. The beginning of the 20th century was the time of the development of electricity; the language responded with the popularity of new words, including the word “dynamo”. The device that converts mechanical work into electrical work was called a “dynamo,” and the new branch of physics was called “dynamo theory.” This is exactly what was customary to say for many years, and this is what they still say today - the dynamo theory.
Physics is an experimental science: one can discuss for a long time the models of physical processes that theorists operate with, but physicists soon began to say that it would be nice to confirm all these conjectures experimentally. Namely: it is necessary to confirm that the induced field can be combined with the original one. We had to wait almost a century for this confirmation.
What's the problem?
The difficulty in experimentally testing the dynamo idea is this. If you press the switch and break the conductive circuit through which the current flows, the light will go out, and at the same time the magnetic field generated by the current will disappear. The magnetic field energy will turn into heat due to ohmic losses (and partly due to radiation). In order for a dynamo to work, the induction effect must overcome ohmic losses. To estimate the relative magnitude of induction effects and ohmic losses, the so-called dimensionless magnetic Reynolds number Rm = vL/νm is introduced. The numerator of this fraction contains the quantities associated with induction effects - the speed of movement of the frame and its size, and the denominator is the magnetic diffusion coefficient, which is proportional to the specific electrical resistance environment. In order for induction to overcome ohmic losses, the magnetic Reynolds number must be sufficiently high - calculations show that a value of about 17 must be reached.
The search for a possible dynamo experiment scheme is, first of all, a struggle for a high magnetic Reynolds number. Possibilities laboratory physics here they are not too large - there are not so many moving, well-conducting media. If we want to simulate planetary and cosmic effects, then we are not talking about solid conductors. In space, solid bodies are rare, and those that exist - the solid shells of the Earth, for example - obviously do not create interesting induction effects. Conducting gases are plasma. The vast majority of celestial bodies are made of it. It is possible that in the future we will also have laboratory dynamo experiments with plasma, but now these possibilities are still under discussion.
The choice among liquids is also small. Electrolytes have poor conductivity, leaving liquid metals. Mercury is expensive, dangerous, very heavy, and a poor conductor. To overclock large number mercury to the required speeds requires enormous energy. In laboratory experiments to study the flow of liquid metals, gallium is widely used - it is half the weight of mercury and melts at 29°C (and its alloys even at 17°C), but gallium is also expensive and does not conduct electric current as well as we would like. High density and poor conductivity are also disadvantages of other low-temperature alloys (for example, the well-known Wood's alloy). The next candidate, sodium, is explosive and would have to be heated to hundreds of degrees. But it is cheap, conducts current better than gallium, and is very light. There is also a eutectic alloy of sodium with gallium, which melts at 12°C, however, it is very aggressive, like lithium.
So, we have decided on a possible substance for dynamo experiments: it is sodium, a reasonable compromise of the required physical properties and dangers. The choice was clear at the very beginning of the journey, half a century ago.
As for the speed of movement, the capabilities of laboratory physics are clearly inferior to the capabilities of the space environment. However, the main advantage of space is its enormous size. A laboratory installation measuring 10 meters in size, in which the medium moves at a speed of 10 m/sec, is a cyclopean spectacle, and for space these are very modest figures.
As a result, for the Sun the magnetic Reynolds number reaches millions, and for a modern laboratory a hundred is the ultimate dream, the result of many years of hard work. Nevertheless, this is already more than the cherished 17, so there are chances.
However, not everything is so simple with the dynamo mechanism itself. On the Sun, and even on the Earth, there are no metal frames with current - their work must be reproduced by environmental flows. Organizing the required movement of fluid flow is much more difficult than moving a wire in the required manner. However, what is much worse is that simple flows obviously cannot work like a dynamo. They also talk about this in school: according to Lenz’s rule, the magnetic field that arises in a conducting frame due to the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is directed opposite to the original magnetic field and does not strengthen it, but weakens it. Therefore, the movement of one frame cannot lead to self-excitation of a magnetic field in it.
Smart Lenz will bypass
And yet, physicists have found a loophole in Lenz's rule. Consider two frames moving in a magnetic field. The inductive effect in the first frame weakens the magnetic field in the same frame, but can strengthen it in the second if it is suitably positioned. This does not contradict Lenz's rule. Now it is possible to ensure that the induction effect in the second frame strengthens the magnetic field in the first, but, of course, weakens it in the second. It can be hoped that the joint operation of the two frames will lead to the fact that in each of them the induction will become greater than the losses and the magnetic field will begin to increase like an avalanche.
Of course, in principle, one can hope for everything that is not directly prohibited by the laws of nature, but the distance from hope to confidence is noticeable. It was possible to overcome it in the 60s of the last century, and Yu. B. Ponomarenko did it. He came up with a specific flow of conducting fluid that was complex enough to generate a magnetic field, but simple enough that the induction equation, which describes the behavior of a magnetic field, could be solved exactly.
The fate of pioneers in science is often difficult. Ponomarenko's work is one of the most famous works dedicated to dynamo. This cannot be said at all about Ponomarenko himself - his biography has completely disappeared from the memory of the scientific community. Honestly, we could remember our heroes better.
The flow, invented by Ponomarenko, is an endless rotating jet of conducting fluid surrounded by a conducting medium (Fig. 2). Such a flow is convenient to reproduce in the laboratory, and it has the lowest known critical magnetic Reynolds number, so Ponomarenko’s idea became one of the main ones in dynamo experiments.
It has now been experimentally confirmed that a flow structured approximately this way actually generates a magnetic field. However, it doesn't actually generate it very well, and the field grows slowly. At the same time, astronomical observations show that, say, on the Sun, magnetic fields change quickly. Each cycle of solar activity, that is, every 11 years, the solar magnetic dipole changes sign to the opposite - for stars these are very rapid changes. Dynamo Ponomarenko cannot provide anything like this. The reason is that in the operation of the Ponomarenko dynamo, magnetic diffusion not only causes ohmic losses, but also ensures the operation of one of the circuits in which the magnetic field is inducted. This is another subtle effect in our science: a vector quantity, that is, a magnetic field, diffuses differently than scalar quantity, that is, temperature.
In order for the magnetic field to change quickly, as it does in the solar cycle, a more complex mechanism is needed than the Ponomarenko dynamo. Such a mechanism was proposed in 1955 by Eugene Parker. Let us imagine the field of a magnetic dipole directed along the axis of rotation of the Sun. Since solar plasma is a relatively good conductor, magnetic lines move along with the solar plasma. But the Sun does not rotate like a solid body - its different layers rotate at different angular speeds, this is called differential rotation. As a result, some particles of solar matter overtake others, magnetic lines are extended in the azimuthal direction, and from the dipole field a magnetic field is obtained that is wound around a certain torus inside the Sun - it is called toroidal. This is the induction effect in the primary circuit. It is quite simple, and there is no doubt about it.
In order for the dynamo to work, it is necessary to somehow transform the toroidal magnetic field into the field of a magnetic dipole (it is called poloidal). This cannot be done by simple currents. Parker guessed that for this to happen, the currents must be mirror-asymmetric. In the northern hemisphere, currents should contain more vortices rotating to the right (along the general movement of the vortex) and in the southern hemisphere - to the left. It turns out that this is exactly the case in a rotating body, in which there are convective flows and variable density. Then in one hemisphere the vortices actually rotate mainly to the right, and in the other - to the left. And if this medium is conductive, then a magnetic field appears directed along the electric current (and not perpendicular to it, as usual), and this, in turn, leads to the desired transformation of the toroidal field into a poloidal one (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Poloidal and toroidal magnetic fields. The main figure shows what the magnetic lines of a magnet located inside a sphere look like - a poloidal magnetic field. The white field shows how a toroidal magnetic field is visualized from sunspot observations
In Fig. Figure 3 shows the magnetic lines of a magnet located inside the sphere - a poloidal magnetic field, the one that is drawn in school textbooks. The white rectangle shows how a toroidal magnetic field is visualized from sunspot observations. This field is not directly observable because it is concentrated under the surface of the Sun. But on the surface of the Sun, in the form of groups of sunspots, individual magnetic tubes float out, separated from the toroidal field. It is shown how during the solar cycle (11 years) the latitudes of those places where groups of sunspots float change (along the horizontal axis is time, along the vertical axis is latitude). It can be seen that the spots form clusters located in different hemispheres. Dark and light show clusters with groups of spots of opposite polarity, and individual points represent those few spots for which the cluster separation method used gave unreliable results. It can be seen that the toroidal magnetic field drifts during the solar activity cycle from mid-latitudes to the solar equator; it is antisymmetric with respect to the equator and changes sign every cycle. This is Hale's rule of polarity.
Parker argued his thoughts using an analogy with cyclones on Earth. This argument did not look very convincing, although now we know that he correctly guessed the necessary equations and the nature of their solution. A decade later, in the remarkable work of Max Steenbeck, Fritz Krause and Karl Heinz Radler, it was possible to provide a basis for these considerations in the form of well-thought-out equations that follow from Maxwell's equations, and not from analogies.
Alpha effect comes to dynamo
Max Steenbeck was generally a colorful person. In his youth, a leading engineer at Siemens, he invented a lot of interesting things, for example, a torpedo that explodes not at the first contact with the ship’s hull, like all normal torpedoes, but when it penetrates inside the hull. In this case, the destruction increases many times over. The invention made such an impression on Germany’s opponents in World War II that he had to spend ten years after its end in a special closed institute (“sharashka”) in Sukhumi. As, by the way, do many other German physicists and engineers. Then he was released to the GDR and made president of the Academy of Sciences of this country. They did it well: the work under discussion is the most striking achievement of the physics of the GDR. Steenbeck’s younger co-authors recall that he, a heavy smoker, told them while smoking a cigar: “You live like pigs, they don’t smoke either!”
The work was written in heavy language, of course, in German, the symbols of physical quantities were typed in Gothic font, and published in a little-known magazine. However, she was quickly transferred to English language, and it became popular among specialists. During translation, all symbols were sequentially designated by the letters of the Greek alphabet, and the process of converting a toroidal magnetic field into a poloidal one was called the “alpha effect.” They say that history has its own logic, but sometimes it is a little strange.
The role of the alpha effect is confirmed by mathematical calculations, but it is difficult to convince physicists with calculations alone. A clear physical picture of how a magnetic field can be generated without the participation of magnetic diffusion was given by Ya.B. Zeldovich. Since he was one of the creators of atomic and hydrogen bomb, he was sent abroad very rarely, and every trip abroad was a big event for him. Therefore, at a symposium in Krakow, already in the 70s, he was in mild condition euphoria and, answering the question of how a dynamo can work - after all, for this you need to get two in the place where there was one magnetic line, and these lines are glued to the liquid - he performed the following trick. He asked one of the listeners, sitting in the first row, to give him a trouser belt and showed on this belt how the current first stretches the magnetic loop (this is done by differential rotation), and then folds it into a figure eight and folds it in half (here the alpha effect is already needed - after all, you need to do a mirror-asymmetric operation). History is silent about what happened to the trouser belt and its owner, but this illustration was accepted by all specialists, and its author did not find it necessary to describe it in any special work. Apparently, he thought that this remark was enough.
It's funny that all these episodes were completely independent - German physicists did not read Parker and so on. Science can develop in a completely illogical way, people come up with solutions to equations that have not yet been written, do everything to ensure that their ideas do not become public knowledge, but out of all this, over time, a consistent science grows.
The alpha effect has another important feature. In the world around us there are almost no phenomena associated with mirror-asymmetric media, perhaps only Beer’s law in geography (about which bank a river washes away in a given hemisphere), and the fact that organic molecules in living matter they have only one orientation, reminding us of the role of mirror asymmetry. Recently, physicists have begun to make mirror-asymmetric fillings of waveguides and are trying to extract interesting effects from this. The situation is completely different in the microcosm - there are reactions between elementary particles, which go differently after reflection in the mirror. It turns out that in the physics of cosmic media, as in microphysics, mirror asymmetry also plays a role. In modern physics they like to say that cosmology merges with microphysics. When studying dynamos, such a closure also occurs, as we see, but in some unexpected way.
Apparently, what has been said is enough for the reader to feel: the study of dynamo is full of completely non-standard ideas that look a bit outlandish to a person who is not in close contact with this area of physics. At the same time, it is easy to continue the list of non-standard ideas from dynamo theory, but the limitation of the volume of the article keeps us from doing this.
Experiment
Of course, there is no hope that people will fully believe in non-standard ideas, if they are not supported by at least some experiments. This was already clear in the 60s, when Max Steenbeck, probably using his official position, agreed with Soviet physicists to set up the first dynamo experiment. Magnetic hydrodynamics, to which this experiment should have belonged, was one of the strong areas of Soviet physics. This area of science enjoyed the attention of the government; it found time to make a special decision that the Latvian SSR, namely the Institute of Physics of the Latvian SSR in Salaspils near Riga, was to become the center of research in the field of magnetohydrodynamics.
Many years have passed since then, and now Riga is a distant foreign country. Latvian physicists made friends with German physicists and a few days before the end of the last millennium, for the first time they obtained self-excitation of a magnetic field in a flow of liquid sodium. It was truly a cyclopean experiment. Tons of sodium were pumped by powerful pumps through a system of pipes and containers that occupied a three-story building. A lot of time was spent solving a wide variety of technical problems, at least eliminating blockages in the flow of sodium. Nevertheless, success was achieved, and the work found worldwide recognition. A few days later, self-excitation of the magnetic field was obtained in another dynamo experiment, this time a purely German one, which was carried out in Karlsruhe. This work also gained worldwide fame.
Russian physicists had to start from scratch. Physicists at the Institute of Continuum Mechanics in Perm had some groundwork, and at the end of the 90s they decided to begin experimental work there on the magnetic hydrodynamics of liquid metals at high magnetic Reynolds numbers, focused on studying the dynamo process.
When planning the dynamo experiment in Perm, it was clear that in the foreseeable future it would not be possible to compete with foreign physicists in the size of the installation, that is, in that very L, which is included in the magnetic Reynolds number - there simply was not enough money. Fortunately, we managed to find a fresh approach to the problem. Previous installations created a flow that, in principle, could be maintained indefinitely. Pumps accelerate liquid sodium, and this requires a lot of energy - the viscosity of sodium is small, so it is not easy to accelerate it with turbines.
The idea of the Perm installation is different: its action is pulsed, and fast current occurs only for a short time. A toroidal container is taken and accelerated for a long time by a relatively low-power motor, and then quickly slowed down by powerful brakes. At the same time, the liquid inside the container continues to move - the viscosity is low - and the diverters located in the channel form the desired flow profile. Of course, such a flow quickly loses speed, but during this time a lot can be measured (Fig. 4).
The laboratory began work when self-excitation of the magnetic field had not yet been achieved anywhere in the world, but after successes in Riga and Karlsruhe it became clear that new guidelines needed to be sought. Other groups working with dynamo experiments, in particular our French colleagues from Lyon, had to do the same.
Rice. 4. The relatively small installation of the Perm experiment has impressive dimensions. In the photo, one of the participants in the experiment, Professor S. Yu. Khripchenko, is assembling the installation
In solving this strategic problem, it was important to see that dynamo experiments were somewhat related to various works in electrical and electronics engineering. In all these cases, we are talking about building a complex device that provides the desired behavior. electromagnetic field. In this case, two types of problems arise. Some tasks are how to make what you want from known materials and how it will behave, while others are what are the properties various materials and why they are like that. In physics these are two different classes of problems. It never occurs to anyone to simultaneously design a television and figure out why copper is a good conductor and what its electrical conductivity is. In astrophysics, for many reasons, these two areas of activity are practically not separated, so that in many theoretical works on dynamos they simultaneously calculated, say, the alpha effect and found out what magnetic field configurations are generated in solar plasma with such an alpha effect. The difficulties that arise in this case can easily be imagined by imagining a team of developers of a new TV, if at the same time they carry out various materials science experiments with the materials from which circuit elements are made - lamps, transistors, resistors, etc.
Teams working in the field of dynamo experiments have managed to achieve a reasonable division of labor in this area. Lyon physicists have learned to reproduce on their installation various modes of dynamo operation, which simulate the behavior of the magnetic field on the Sun and on Earth. In these celestial bodies, the temporary behavior of magnetic fields is very different, and they were able to reproduce both types of behavior in Lyon. In Perm, they took a different path - they began to measure various coefficients of magnetic field transfer in a turbulent flow. For the first time in the world, it was possible to measure the alpha effect itself, that is, the main quantity with which the generation of a magnetic field is associated. This result is also generally accepted among specialists. Specialists from different countries working in the field of dynamo experiment cooperate with each other. Perm physicists travel to Lyon, French physicists visit Perm, together with their Perm colleagues they carry out measurements at Perm installations, and publish joint works. Our region is still at the beginning of its development. Only the first milestones have been passed, the first results have been achieved, the first disappointments have been experienced. However, we already know where what moves the compass needle comes from.
The scientific community is eagerly awaiting the results of the planned experiment, which was recently published in Physical Review Letters.
“We also expect a detailed understanding of the general dynamics of the flow of metals in a liquid state under the influence of magnetic fields,” the scientists say.
A study recently published in Physical Review Letters reports the experiment's chances of success.
Like a dynamo that converts motion into electricity, moving fluids can generate magnetic fields. The so-called magnetic Reynolds number primarily determines whether a magnetic field is actually generated.
During the experiment, scientists from Frank Stefani's team at the HZDR Institute strive to reach the critical value necessary for the dynamo effect to occur. To this end, a steel cylinder with a diameter of 2 meters, containing eight tons of liquid sodium, will rotate around one axis up to 10 times per second and once per second around another axis, which is tilted relative to the first.
“Our experiment at the new DRESDYN facility aims to demonstrate that precession, as a natural flux driver, is sufficient to generate a magnetic field,” says André Gieske, lead author of the study.
The center of the earth consists of hard core surrounded by a layer of molten iron. “The molten metal induces an electric current, which in turn generates a magnetic field,” explains Gieseke. However, the role that precession plays in the formation of the Earth's magnetic field still remains unclear.
The Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees from its orbital plane and changes position over the course of about 26,000 years. This precessive motion is considered one of the possible sources of energy. Millions of years ago there was also a powerful magnetic field, as evidenced by samples rocks from the Apollo missions. According to experts, precession could be the main reason.
It is expected that experiments with liquid sodium in HZDR will begin in 2020. Unlike previous laboratory experiments in 1999, the steel drum will not have a propeller, as was used in the first experiment in Riga, Latvia in 1999, in which HZDR scientists were involved. This and other experiments in Karlsruhe, Germany and Cadarache, France, have provided groundbreaking research to better understand geodynamics.
“In principle, we can define three different parameters for the DRESDYN experiments: rotation, precession and the angle between the two axes,” says Gieseke. He and his colleagues expect to get answers to the fundamental question of whether precession actually creates a magnetic field in a conducting fluid.
The next big discovery happened almost by accident. Hans Christian Ørsted (1777-1851), professor of physics at the University of Copenhagen, was preparing for a lecture on electricity and magnetism; To do this, he brought a battery into the classroom to demonstrate the effect of electric current. He placed a compass next to the battery to demonstrate magnetic forces. Previously, he had already noticed that there is some connection between electricity and magnetism: for example, the compass needle goes wild during a thunderstorm.
There was little time left before the start of the lecture, and the professor decided to conduct a small experiment. Oersted placed the compass next to a wire through which an electric current was flowing, and his suspicions were confirmed: under the influence of the current, the compass needle began to move. Thus, two separate phenomena, electricity and magnetism, which had previously been considered completely separately, actually turned out to be connected with each other. Oersted continued his research and published the results in 1820.
The news of Oersted's discovery spread very quickly. A few years later, his article was read at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences. Ampère was also present at this meeting, and he immediately began to work on an explanation of the phenomenon discovered by Oersted. The theory was ready within a week and served as the basis for combining electricity and magnetism into the theory of electromagnetism.
André Marie Ampère (17751836) was born near Lyon. His father, a wealthy merchant who served as justice of the peace in Lyon, was executed during French Revolution. Now Ampere's house has been turned into a museum and is open to the public. As a child, Ampere did not go to school, but acquired his knowledge by reading books. Here is an episode that talks about his excellent memory and learning abilities. While still a small boy, he went to the Lyon Library and asked for books by famous mathematicians Euler and Bernoulli. The librarian explained to the boy that these were complex mathematical books that would be difficult for him to understand, and besides, they were written in Latin. The news about the Latin language confused Ampere, but he decided that ignorance Latin language shouldn't bother him. A few weeks later he returned to the library, already knowing Latin, and began reading these books.
Ampere married at 24 and supported his family by working school teacher. In 1808 he was appointed inspector of schools and remained in this position throughout his life. In addition, he worked as a professor in Paris. By 1820, when Ampère became interested in electromagnetism, he was already widely known for his work in mathematics and chemistry. This versatile scientist started out as a professor of mathematics, then became a professor of philosophy, and later a professor of astronomy! Beginning in 1824, Ampère was already a professor of physics at the College de France.
Ampère was not satisfied with merely explaining Oersted's results and began his own research.
For example, he showed that, having reeled electrical wire in a coil, you can create an artificial magnet - an electromagnet that acts exactly the same as natural magnets. Ampère boldly, but quite correctly, suggested that natural magnets contained within themselves small coils of continuous current, which acted together to create natural magnetism.
Ampere immediately realized the importance of the phenomenon of electromagnetism in the transmission of information. By turning the current on and off, you can move the needle of a compass located quite far away. The message can be transmitted as fast as electric current travels. Soon the production of telegraph devices operating on this principle began. One of the first telegraph lines was laid in 1834 in Göttingen between the laboratory of Wilhelm Weber and the astronomical observatory of Carl Friedrich Gauss. In the same year, the first commercial telegraph line connecting Washington and Baltimore (USA) was established by Samuel Morse, the inventor of Morse code.
Another scientist who immediately appreciated the enormous significance of Oersted's discovery was the Englishman Michael Faraday. He was the son of a blacksmith and received minimal education. At the age of 13 he became an apprentice bookbinder. Binding books, he read them. One of his clients gave him a free subscription to attend Humphry Davy's public lectures (17781829). Faraday made neat lecture notes, bound them beautifully, and sent them to Davy with a note asking if Davy had any work for him. Imagine Faraday's surprise when Davy invited him to his place. The summary was written very carefully and made a good impression on Davy. In 1820, he offered the boy a position as his assistant at the Royal Institution in London. Thus began one of the most celebrated careers in science. It was said that Davy's greatest discovery was Faraday.
Faraday studied with Davy himself. When Davy went on an eighteen-month tour to the continent, he took with him Faraday, who there met, among others, Ampère and Volta. When Davy was working in Paris with Louis GayLuse a com, studying a new chemical element- iodine, Faraday helped them. However, even at home his official duties included conducting chemical experiments.
Apart from a temporary interest in electromagnetism caused by Oersted's discovery, Faraday was a professional chemist until 1830. In 1833 he became professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. But by this time his scientific interests had already changed. Faraday was convinced that if an electric current could cause magnetic forces, then a magnet must be capable of creating an electric current. This opinion was shared by many, among whom was Ampere, who, however, was unable to confirm this exciting idea.
Over the course of several years, Faraday conducted various experiments on electromagnetism. In 1831 he placed one coil inside another. When current was passed through one of the coils, it became an electromagnet. Faraday wanted to find out whether a magnet could cause an electric current to appear in the second coil. Indeed, a current arose, but only for an instant - only when the electromagnet was turned on or off. This led Faraday to an important discovery: changing a magnet—for example, changing the magnet's strength or rotating it—generates an electric current in a nearby coil. The key here was changing the magnet.
This allowed Faraday to construct an electric generator - a simple dynamo, which in the future became the basis of electrical engineering. One day he demonstrated his discovery to William Gladstone, who was the Secretary of the Treasury at the time, and he asked: “Well, how can this be used?” Faraday replied: "It is quite possible, sir, that someday you will be able to tax it."
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The Big Bang theory is now considered as certain as the Copernican system. However, until the second half of the 1960s, it did not enjoy universal recognition, and not only because many scientists initially denied the very idea of the expansion of the Universe. It’s just that this model had a serious competitor.
In 11 years, cosmology as a science will be able to celebrate its centenary. In 1917, Albert Einstein realized that the equations general theory relativity allows us to calculate physically...
The theory of the propagation of electromagnetic waves and light, until its completion by Maxwell, was associated with the concept of the ether as a kind of mechanical medium that transmits vibrations. It was assumed that Maxwell's equations are valid in a reference frame at rest relative to the ether.
Unlike Newton's equations, which were known to be valid in all frames of reference, Maxwell's equations seemed to require a preferred frame of reference.
The concept of ether is one of the most famous...
Long body of the solar systemAs it appears to man, the Solar System consists of a huge radiating sphere, around which, at harmoniously increasing intervals, like the circles of a stone thrown into water, lie orbits in which other smaller and non-radiating spheres revolve. Like the stone for these circles on the water, this central radiating sphere, or sun, appears to be the source of energy by which all phenomena are created. With a diameter of about one ten-thousandth of its entire system, it stands in almost exactly the same relation to its vast field of influence as the human egg to the body that grows from it. And since in both cases the smaller one gives growth to the larger one, the degree of concentration or intensity of energy should be the same.
The concentric orbits of the dependent spheres, or planets, are harmoniously related to each other in accordance with a law called Bode's law after its author. Taking geometric progression 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 102 and adding 4 to each digit, we get a series that more or less represents the relative distances of the planetary orbits from the Sun.
The planets themselves vary in size - first increasing in size from the smallest, Mercury, which is closest to the center, to the largest, Jupiter, halfway between the center and the outer edge, and then decreasing again to the outermost known planet (Pluto). , which is slightly larger than Mercury.
The more distant a planet is, the slower its apparent speed, decreasing from 30 miles per second for Mercury to 3 1/3 miles per second for Neptune. This is normal characteristic feature weakening of impulses sent from a central source as they descend to greater depths. Very good model This process gives us fireworks, a “wheel of fire,” when it, rotating quickly, scatters streams of sparks around itself, and it seems that they are rounded back into reverse side on the direction of rotation - that is, the sparks lose their orbital speed the more the further they are thrown.
In addition, it is worth noting that the orbital speed of planets is inversely proportional square root their distances from the Sun. Since the intensity of light decreases inversely as the square of the distance, we can further add that the orbital speed of the planets is proportional to the square of the square of the intensity of the sunlight incident on them. Like cells, people and, apparently, all living creatures, the speed of planets depends on the influence that is exerted on them.
Of course, in a "wheel of fire" the sparks initially fly from the center. Many theories agree that planets were once born in the same way, or torn from the body of the Sun itself, perhaps children of the tension created by another star passing nearby. During that infinitesimal flash of solar time, covering the entire known period of human exploration of the sky, not a single sign of outward motion of the planets was noticed. But this is hardly surprising. For if the original birth of the planets had occurred, as is supposed, several thousand millions of years ago, such outward movement would have amounted to no more than a mile or two in one century.
We can only say that the entire structure of the Solar System - just like the structure of the spiral nebula - presupposes such an expansion from the center. This implies not only the removal of the planets, but also the growth and expansion of the Sun itself. Because only an even hotter and more enormous sun than ours, that is, a sun whose matter is brought to a much greater intensity and rarefaction, could support and give life to its satellites at such a vast distance. In such a giant as Antares, millions of times more rarefied than our Sun, and whose radiant diameter could cover the entire orbit of the Earth, we see an example of such an older and more developed system. The central life and heat are no longer limited there to any particular astronomical point, but have already grown to such an extent that covers most of his possessions. This is the difference between human consciousness, which is attached to one organ, and consciousness, which covers the whole body and penetrates all the functions of a person. We distinguish this latter as a more developed state.
If the outer motion of the Solar System is inaccessible to human perception due to its time scale, then its circular motion is quite noticeable and can be calculated. The axis of the system, that is, the Sun itself, revolves around itself in a little less than a month. By the time the impulse of this circular motion reaches Mercury, its speed drops to three months, and when it reaches Venus - to eight months, Earth - to twelve months; and so on in decreasing proportions, right up to the orbit of Neptune, where it takes at least 164 years to complete a full revolution. Kepler's third law is a formal expression of this weakening.
What we are really trying to describe in this confusing way is simply the relationship between space and time. We are trying to describe the changes taking place in a section that gradually moves along the third dimension or length of the higher body, that is, the Solar System. In the same way, a cell in the blood stream, seeing only a cross-section of the human body, would try to analyze the apparent movements of the cross sections of arteries and nerves, the different speeds of which would depend on the angle at which they would pass through its plane.
As we said at the beginning, all such descriptions refer to such a Solar System "as it appears to man." In what form can one imagine not only a section, but the entire body of the Solar System?
So, the unity and pattern of the human body exists in a dimension higher than the present dimension of the cell, where what it considers past and future coexists as one human being. In the same way, the unity of the Solar System, the design and pattern of its body must exist in the next dimension beyond the present universe of man. Our task, therefore, is to try to clearly imagine the past and future of the Solar System as coexisting and constituting one body. We must imagine the Solar System as it sees itself, just as in order to understand the unity and model of man, the cell must try to imagine man as he or another person would see itself.
We have calculated that the moment of perception of the Sun lasts 80 years. When we looked at it with our usual cross-sectional view, we imagined circles radiating across the surface of the pond from a thrown stone. Now we must imagine this stone plunging to the entire depth of the pond, and, accordingly, waves diverging from it throughout the entire thickness of the water. Or better, we should imagine our “wheel of fire” not only spinning, but moving forward, fast enough so that its entire fiery train can be seen at once.
First, what will be the size of this whirlwind of fire, which has now become our model?
Astronomers, by calculating the difference between the fastest speed at which the constellations directly above the ecliptic appear to approach us and the fastest speed at which the constellations directly below us appear to retreat from us, estimate that the entire Solar System is moving towards Vega at a speed of about 12 1/ 2 miles per second. Thus, in 80 years, the Sun, dragging behind it all the radiation of its system, moves 30,000 million miles forward into space. The diameter of Neptune's orbit is about 6,000 million miles. Thus, the sphere of radiation, the fiery trail, or the “body” of the Solar System over 80 years is a figure whose length is five times its width, that is, it has proportions close to the figure of a full-length person. This is the silhouette of the body of our Sun.
Let us remember that the “moment of perception” of an equal being looking at the Solar System is 80 years. This creature will see an unusually complex and beautiful figure. The paths of the planets, stretched out in the form of countless spirals of various tensions and diameters, now became a series of iridescent shells covering the long, white-hot thread of the sun. Each of them shimmers with its own special brilliance and color, and all together are shrouded on all sides in a light gaseous fabric, woven from the eccentric paths of countless asteroids and comets, everything radiates with living warmth and sounds incredibly subtle and harmonious music.
This image is not fantastic in any of its details. The width of the planetary orbits will determine the size of each shell; the diameter of a planet is the coarseness or fineness of the thread from which it is woven; the relative curvature of the planet's surface - its angle of refraction or color; the number and distance of its satellites - different textures, such as silk, wool or cotton; the density and appearance of the atmosphere - its radiance or glow; whereas the speeds of rotation of the planets will create the effect that the entire set of shells will emit magnetic or living radiation.
No analogy with tissues can, of course, convey all the multitude of manifestations and impressions that can be carefully calculated one after another, but which actually exist simultaneously. We know from experience gained at our level that when such a multitude of impressions are produced together, this means that we are confronted with a phenomenon that defies any effort of precise analysis, that is, the phenomenon of life. And he who goes far enough in this use of exact analogy cannot escape the conclusion that 1there0, in a world where the “moment of perception” is 80 years, the Solar System is, in some way incomprehensible to us, a living body.
Observing the incredible increase in importance and significance of even such simple and boring phenomena as size and curvature, when translating them onto that time scale, we find ourselves completely unable to imagine a possible appearance that four-dimensional Sun, when even our three-dimensional one blinds us with its radiance. And we can only assume that it will somehow represent the innermost life force of the Solar Being, invisible to the observer even on the same scale, just as the consciousness of one person is invisible to another.
We talked about other systems, for example, about the Antares system, in which the central solar radiation already covers a much larger volume than our Sun does. And we talked about the inevitable conclusion that follows from the idea of an expanding Solar System, that our Sun should also become increasingly hot, bright, radiant.
In fact, it may be this difference in the degree of radiation from the central Sun that is the main difference between the millions of solar systems that make up the Milky Way. All such systems, to be capable of development, must include a complete set of elements and planets, just as human beings, to be capable of development, must have a complete set of organs and functions. The only factor which remains variable and perfectible is, in the one case, the strength and penetrating power of her central light, and in the other, the strength and penetrating power of the central consciousness.
All people are similar to each other in their image and structure: and so, most likely, are all the suns. What distinguishes people from each other in the level of their consciousness is the same that distinguishes the suns in the degree of their radiation.
In fact, the more we study this question, the more clearly it is seen that light and consciousness are subject to the same laws, and are strengthened or weakened in the same way. We can even say that they are the same phenomenon, visible on different scales.
This is, in fact, the only variable factor in the universe, the only factor that can change as a result individual work, effort and understanding of each individual space. In their structure, neither man nor the sun can change anything, cannot do anything, since each of these creatures - such as it is - is endowed with a model of the universe, guaranteeing that each of them at the very beginning receives everything necessary for self-development. But this self-development, that is, the gradual illumination and illumination of one’s cosmos with self-produced light or consciousness, depends entirely only on this individual being himself. Here it should do everything.
Moreover, the whole can only become more conscious if the part becomes more conscious, and the part can only become more conscious if the whole becomes more conscious. If I suddenly become aware of my foot, then my foot also becomes aware of itself, and begins to notice all kinds of new sensations and movements of which neither it nor I were previously aware. If one cell of my body is excited to the point that it becomes conscious of some terrible calamity on its own scale, then I also become conscious of pain. In the same way, an increase in the radiation of the sun should be associated with an increase in the absorption and transformation of light by the planets - that is, the gradual acquisition of their own radiation.
For a person to be fully conscious, all parts of him must become fully conscious. For the Sun to become fully radiant, all its planets must become radiant. In order for the Absolute to remember itself, all beings must remember themselves.
To those who ask what the purpose of the universe is, we can therefore answer that the purpose of the universe and every being in it, from the sun to the cell, is to become more conscious.
Solar system as a transformer
The image we have described as a network of intertwined shells will no doubt offer analogies to each specialist according to his field of knowledge. To a physiologist, for example, he can recall the interpenetration of various systems in the human body - muscular, arterial, lymphatic, nervous and so on, each of which is built from fibers or channels various sizes and is a carrier of energy different from others.
One of the most useful analogies for our purpose is the one that might occur to an electrical engineer. By removing its sensory manifestations from our image and reducing it simply to the geometric projection of spirals on paper, he could recognize in it the circuit of a polyphase transformer. The universe of flying balls of mechanics left a trace in time for the universe of electrical engineering - in the form of spiral turns, conceived, as he would have guessed, for nothing other than the transmission and transformation of solar energy.
For the non-expert, let's remember that electricity has two units of measurement - current (amps) and voltage (volts), and that a transformer is a device for changing the relationship between these two. To put it in the most general way, the heavier the machine that needs to be set in motion, the greater the current required for this. To meet such different demands from one single power source, the transformer increases the current by decreasing the voltage, and vice versa. This is achieved by passing current through the winding with a certain amount turns and inducing reverse flow into some other adjacent winding with more or less turns. If the number of turns in the secondary winding is greater than in the primary, then the current decreases and the voltage increases; if it is less, then the opposite result is achieved.
In practice, the current strength is limited by the composition and thickness of the wire. Therefore, if the current were to be made suitable for lighting wires, it would have to be transformed into high voltage and low current.
Now, considering in the light of these ideas our diagram of the traces of the main bodies of the Solar System, we clearly distinguish the thick straight primary winding of the Sun, surrounded by the eight secondary spirals of its planets. We also see that the thickness of these planetary "wires" varies from one-tenth (Jupiter) to one-hundredth (Mercury) of the thickness of the solar primary winding. And in an 80-year-old circuit, we can count in various spirals all types of windings from one and a half to at least three hundred turns. Indeed, here we have all the factors and components of a huge transformer, receiving current at one specific voltage and converting it into eight different voltages. The model is perfect down to the insulation of wires with a thin non-conducting film of planetary atmospheres.
A transformer built in the human world according to the instructions of this cosmic circuit will produce current of eight different voltages and eight different currents. And from the number of revolutions of planetary spirals over eighty years, taken as a standard, we could even calculate their relative power. Suppose, for example, that the current produced from the original Solar electricity by the Neptune winding has a voltage of 1 volt and a current of 10,000 amperes. Then the power of Jupiter will be 14 volts and 770 amperes, the Earth - about 170 volts and 60 amperes, Mercury - 700 volts and 15 amperes, and so on. -117 0
17. See Tables of Planets - Appendix IV, a and b.
We could observe an increase in current strength in the world of any planet as an increase in vibration, that is, a faster rotation of this planet around its axis.
If the windings of such a transformer were made of materials having the same conductivity, then the cross-section of the wire required for each of the windings would be proportional to the strength of the current it carries. In fact cross sections planets are more or less than this required value within _ 10 times. But let's assume that the planetary windings have unequal conductivity. Let us assume that the inner cores of these wires - as is almost always the case - are made of various metals, each of which has a different conductivity. And further suppose that those with a smaller cross-section than we expected, such as Neptune, are made of metals with high conductivity, and those with a larger cross-section, such as Jupiter, are made of metals with low conductivity. Then, taking into account the generally accepted attribution of metals to the planets - silver to Neptune, gold to Uranus, antimony to Saturn, bismuth to Jupiter, copper to Mars, iron to Earth, strontium to Venus and brass to Mercury - our obvious error can be corrected, and the whole huge machine will actually turn out to be accurate in all respects. indicators. If we only assume that the planetary windings vary in their conductivity in the same way as metals, then they do seem to be specially designed to play the role of transformers of solar energy in the manner described. 17.
This can be challenged by assuming that the metals were chosen arbitrarily in order to obtain this particular result. Unfortunately, since the planets themselves do not have radiation, modern science It is not possible to study their composition. And we can only notice in passing that modern theories in fact, it is suggested that the bulk of the Earth, or barisphere, is compressed iron. In addition, we have the traditional assignment of metals to the planets in astrology, but this has changed in different periods and, since it was done on the basis of familiarity with only a few metals, is not very useful. Therefore, for the moment we must place these calculations in the realm of speculative conclusions.
What is much more important from our point of view is the principle that an electric current passing along a wire creates a magnetic field around that wire. This magnetic field consists of concentric lines of force moving around the wire in a clockwise direction when viewed from the direction in which the current is moving. In other words, as the current moves, the magnetic field rotates in the same way that a corkscrew rotates as it is screwed into a cork.
If we now try to translate this from the world of spirals, visible in the time of the Sun, into the world of spinning balls, visible in the time of man, then we will understand how it happens that 1all0 rotating bodies in the universe create a magnetic field and are surrounded by it. Their very rotation, as we have just seen, is an indication that they are sections of lines through which some enormous current passes into some other dimension. We will also understand that the speed of the planet's orbit represents, quite clearly, the speed of flow of this enormous current. Because, as we saw earlier, this orbital speed is a direct consequence of the strength of the sunlight reaching it - that is, it is stimulated, or induced, by the central energy of the sun.
All planets are thus surrounded by their own magnetic fields. The section of wire around which the magnetic force field rotates will be represented by the equator of the planet, while the north pole of the planet will represent the direction of the planet's movement in time, that is, the direction of the huge current that fills it. Thus, the attraction of the north pole of the planet can be considered the attraction of the future, that is, attraction in the direction in which the planet with all its inhabitants is moving; while the repellent effect of the south pole represents the rejection of the past, the rejection of the direction from which the planet and all its inhabitants came. For all beings, the future is the positive pole of time, the past is the negative. They cannot do anything other than be attracted to one and repelled by the other.
These planetary magnetic fields overlap and interact, and the jointly produced constant varies only slightly in the field of each. In practice, only the Earth’s magnetic field has been studied in most detail, along with the influence of the magnetic fields of the Sun and Moon on it. It is known, for example, that magnetic influence The sun's impact on the Earth is about 12 times stronger than that on the Moon - a field of about 60,000 amperes compared to 5,000. -18.
18. Sydney Chapman, "The Earth's Magnetism", p.76. The magnetic influences of the planets have not yet been measured individually, nor even simply distinguished from one another, although the existence of such an influence has become a scientific fact in connection with the influence of various planetary configurations on the reception of short radio waves. (Configuration (astro.) - apparent position relative to the Sun - approx. transl.).
If we talk about the Sun, then its magnetic influence seems less - for our perception - than the much stronger influence of those vibrations that we perceive as light and heat, and much more characteristic of the sun. However, this magnetic influence is quite different from light, since the measurement of the delay between the magnetic disturbances seen on the surface of the Sun and the magnetic storms felt as their result on the surface of the Earth shows that this influence travels at a completely different speed. If the light of the Sun reaches us in seven minutes, then magnetic influences from the same source take one to two days to be felt on Earth. While light travels at 186,000 miles per second, magnetic waves travel only about 400 miles per second, or about 500 times slower.
What are the consequences of this magnetic influence? Perhaps the most obvious and beautiful phenomenon directly caused by it is the aurora borealis, or Northern Lights. And this is just interesting, because in the northern lights we see pure light - itself invisible - for the first time endowed with form. This form is constantly changing, moving, transforming, creating a majestic curtain or shimmering spheres or pulsating fields of radiation in the northern sky. The Northern Lights are almost completely insubstantial and are the result of magnetism acting directly on free hydrogen ions. In it we clearly see the effect of the magnetic field as form, and changes in this field as changes in form. The same phenomenon occurs when we place a magnet under a piece of paper covered with iron filings, and it gives the previously amorphous mass the visible shape of its field. This is for real general principle- The magnetic influence acting on matter is what creates visible form.
We said that in the case of the Sun, although its magnetic influence is enormous, it appears less due to the much greater speed of influence of light, which from our point of view is a much more important characteristic of the Sun. But the Moon and planets do not emit their own light, therefore in their case the magnetic influence is their most characteristic emanation. The combined magnetic influence of the Moon and the planets must, therefore, create a form on the Earth; just as the magnetic influence of the earth must in its turn help to create form on all the other planets.
From all this comes many interesting ideas about the role of magnetism. When we study the various types of energy known to us, we see that each energy has a certain field of action, depending on its source and speed. Light traveling at 186,000 miles per second is produced the sun, and for all practical purposes is limited to the field of the Galaxy. Sound, moving through the air at a speed of 1/5 mile per second, is produced by the phenomena of Nature and is limited by the field of the Earth. At the same time, between light and sound lies a third form of energy - magnetic, which, moving at a speed of 400 miles per second, can be considered as originating from the planets and limited by the field of the Solar System.
Light, magnetism and sound form an obvious hierarchy of energies that characterize the sun, planets and nature respectively. And they represent the means by which these cosmos act upon us, by which the first of them gives us life, the second gives us form, and the third gives us sensation.
Thus, the picture of the universe that gradually grows before the gaze of an electrical engineer is a picture of windings within windings, each of which transforms energy from a higher source for its own needs and electrical capacity. The enormous winding of the Sun must transform its white-hot energy from an even more primal source of current in the depths of the Milky Way. By induction, the Milky Way must produce a current in the Sun, the Sun in the planets, the Earth in the Moon revolving around it, and the sage in the disciple who revolves devotedly around him.
That around which other creatures revolve gives light and life. That which rotates is in turn endowed with magnetism and form. By this magnetism it simultaneously participates in imparting form to others, and, in turn, is itself endowed with form by them. All magnetism acts on all other magnetism. All forms create all other forms. From the first cosmos to the last electron, the entire universe is a collection of windings within windings, spirals within spirals, magnetic fields within magnetic fields. In this aspect, each being converts the same current into the specific voltage required to move a galaxy, a person, or a speck of dust. And when, with the end of its life, its resistance decreases, then, unable to withstand its own voltage, it melts, the form of its magnetic field disintegrates, and it dies.
Interaction of the sun and planets
Here it is probably necessary to make some mitigating remarks relating generally to the principle of analogy, which we have so freely used. It should not be concluded from all the above evidence that the Solar System is a transformer of electrical current, and that the planets are indeed made of antimony, bismuth, iron, etc. - although these elements may in fact play a large role in their composition. What is assumed is that the laws which on one scale allow the construction of a transformer are the same laws which on another scale create the Solar System. The planets may not transform exactly the same electrical energy as we know it into high voltage and low current, but they do transform some unknown energy in this way.
Likewise, although the planets are not necessarily made of the metals in question, they are most likely made of substances that in some way stand in the same ratio to each other as those metals - just like the notes A B C D E F G (A, B, C, D ,Mi, Fa, Sol) remain in the same relation to each other in any - upper or lower - octave. Laws are universal; the mechanisms by which they work are similar to each other on many scales - but the implementation of these laws, the components and products of the work of these mechanisms will differ according to the elements existing at the level under consideration. So, a spring, for example, is the same mechanism, obeying the same law, whether it is used to move the hands of a wristwatch or shoot arrows from a bow. But it is made from different materials and is used for different purposes.
You also need to understand that every analogy, even the most accurate and clear, always remains incomplete. It explains only one side of the phenomenon, and may ignore another side that is equally or even more important. In particular, notwithstanding the appropriateness of analogies derived from the mechanical action of the laws of magnetism or physics, we must never forget that the Solar System in every part exhibits signs 1life0 and reasonableness. We are not dealing with windings or circles on the water, but - we have every reason to believe - with living beings, the capabilities and nature of which are incomprehensible to us, although we can understand that they exist and imagine their possible appearance.
With this in mind, we can try to arrive at some clear understanding of such higher beings by means of many different analogies, each of which will add something to our understanding. Therefore, keeping in mind the image of the transformer and all that it showed us about the nature and functions of the planets in relation to the Sun, we should not, however, stop there.
For example, we can also see the planetary shells around the long body of the solar system as prismatic lenses, each of which has its own refractive index, allowing it to reflect the white light of the Sun with its special color. This refractive index would depend on the speed at which a given planet rotates on its axis, just as the frequency of vibration of electrons determines the colors perceived by the human eye. Between the rate of rotation of the planets (once or twice a day) and the electronic frequency that produces color (10 15 vibrations per second) lies 63 octaves. If we now return to our table of cosmos times, we will find that exactly the same number of octaves lie between the time of the electron and the time of a typical planet - the Earth. That is, the vibration of electrons that produces light, on the planetary scale, is exactly parallel to the motion that we measure as rotation around its axis.
If we then suppose that each planet is a colored reflector in the sky, bathing everything around it with its own special hue, we are really only imagining what the Solar System must look like to a cosmos that is as much larger than the planets as man is larger than the electron. We can clearly imagine this effect when looking at a theater stage, where the footlights may shine a white light on the actors, while spots of colored rays from behind the scenes color their shadows on one side with red, on the other with green or violet. The same will be the relative impression of the Sun and planets.
And if we assume that these actors are on the surface of the Earth or in any other part of the Solar System, then these white and colored lights will constantly change their position relative to each other, and the impression of this will be different at every moment. The white light of the Sun may shine from behind the left wing, while the footlights may shine alternately red and green, combining to fill the stage with a soft yellowish glow. The permutations will be endless, and the effects they produce will constantly change into one another as the lights themselves rotate around the stage.
Moreover, as we all remember from childhood visits to pantomime, each change will determine its own special emotional mood, the same scenery and the same characters will seem terrible and bloody in the red light, in green - eerie and mysterious, in blue - spiritual and sublime, and in yellow - warm, benevolent and prosaic. Of course, colorful lights themselves do not have emotions - in fact, they work according to completely different laws. Nevertheless, the effect they have on human beings is emotional, and their influence is perceived by us in this regard. It's the same with the planets.
It must be emphasized, however, that the planets are only reflectors, only transformers. They do not emit their own light, but only give the light of the Sun a certain “mood,” that is, color. They do not generate their own current, but only adapt the current coming from the Sun for one purpose or another.
We can understand the role of the planets even better by considering them as functions Solar System. Just as digestion, breathing, voluntary movements, intelligence, and so on are functions of the human cosmos, so Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and the rest can be functions of the cosmos of the Solar System. Together, they endow the Sun with all functions, and make it a complete cosmic being, possessing all capabilities.
All the various meanings of this become clearer in the light of the very important principle, governing the relationship between cosmos. Each cosmos contains six pairs of key organs - like batteries, through which it receives influences and energy from the higher cosmos. The principle in question states that 1functions0 the lower cosmos come from the organs of the higher cosmos.
In humans, for example, these organs or batteries are represented by endocrine glands and the secretions of these glands, which, penetrating the cell, create its functions. Turning to the higher cosmos, we find, on the other hand, that all the respiratory functions of all people, animals, birds, fish, plants - together constitute one organ of Nature; All motor functions all moving creatures together constitute another organ of Nature, and so on.
And finally, considering Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn as functions of the Solar System, and remembering the millions of suns and systems that make up the Milky Way, we must think of all possible Mercurys together as constituting one organ for our galaxy, all possible Earths together as another galactic body, and so do all the others.
It is in this way that the anatomy and physiology of each cosmos is related to the anatomy and physiology of all the others. The actual physical organs of the greater cosmos determine the very nature of the functions enjoyed by the lower cosmos.
So, if the only source of all energy and life for the Solar System and everything in it is 1Sun0, then form, color, manifestation and function are all endowed by the planets. These forces interact, merge and separate in infinitely different combinations throughout the entire field of solar influence. One factor, however, still remains unaccounted for in the creation of all these diverse and complex phenomena of nature known to us - this is matter, or the Earth.
Electronic textbook on physics
KSTU-KKhTI. Department of Physics. Starostina I.A., Kondratyeva O.I., Burdova E.V.
To navigate through the text of the electronic textbook, you can use:
1-key press PgDn, PgUp,, to move between pages and lines;
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MAGNETISM
MAGNETISM
1. BASICS OF MAGNETOSTATICS. MAGNETIC FIELD IN VACUUM
1.1. Magnetic field and its characteristics.@
1.2. Ampere's Law.@
1.3. The Biot-Savart-Laplace law and its application to the calculation of the magnetic field. @
1.4. Interaction of two parallel conductors with current. @
1.5. The effect of a magnetic field on a moving charged particle. @
1.6. The law of total current for a magnetic field in vacuum (the theorem on the circulation of vector B). @
1.7. Magnetic induction vector flux. Gauss's theorem for magnetic field. @
1. 8. Frame with current in a uniform magnetic field. @
2. MAGNETIC FIELD IN MATTER. @
2.1. Magnetic moments atoms. @
2.2. Atom in a magnetic field. @
2.3. Magnetization of a substance. @
2.4. Types of magnets. @
2.5. Diamagnetism. Diamagnets. @
2.6. Paramagnetism. Paramagnetic materials. @
2.7. Ferromagnetism. Ferromagnets. @
2.8. Domain structure of ferromagnets. @
2.9. Antiferromagnets and ferrites. @
3. PHENOMENON OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. @
3.1. Basic law of electromagnetic induction. @
3.2. The phenomenon of self-induction. @
3.3. The phenomenon of mutual induction. @
3.4. Magnetic field energy. @
4. MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS. @
4.1. Maxwell's theory for the electromagnetic field. @
4.2. Maxwell's first equation. @
4.3. Bias current. @
4.4. Maxwell's second equation. @
4.5. Maxwell's system of equations in integral form. @
4.6. Electromagnetic field. Electromagnetic waves. @
MAGNETISM
Magnetism- a branch of physics that studies the interaction between electric currents, between currents and magnets (bodies with a magnetic moment) and between magnets.
For a long time, magnetism was considered a completely independent science from electricity. However, a number most important discoveries In the 19th and 20th centuries, A. Ampere, M. Faraday and others proved the connection between electrical and magnetic phenomena, which made it possible to consider the doctrine of magnetism as an integral part of the doctrine of electricity.
1. BASICS OF MAGNETOSTATICS. MAGNETIC FIELD IN VACUUM
1.1. Magnetic field and its characteristics. @
For the first time, magnetic phenomena were consistently examined by the English physician and physicist William Gilbert in his work “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies and the Great Magnet - the Earth.” Then it seemed that electricity and magnetism had nothing in common. Only at the beginning of the 19th century, the Danish scientist G.H. Ørsted put forward the idea that magnetism could be one of the hidden forms of electricity, which was confirmed experimentally in 1820. This experience led to an avalanche of new discoveries that were of great importance.
Numerous experiments at the beginning of the 19th century showed that each current-carrying conductor and permanent magnet are capable of exerting a force through space on other current-carrying conductors or magnets. This occurs due to the fact that a field arises around current-carrying conductors and magnets, which has been called magnetic.
To study the magnetic field, a small magnetic needle is used, suspended on a thread or balanced on a tip (Fig. 1.1). At each point of the magnetic field, an arrow located arbitrarily will be
Fig.1.1. Magnetic field direction
Let us consider a series of experiments that made it possible to establish the basic properties of the magnetic field:
Based on these experiments, it was concluded that the magnetic field is created only by moving charges or moving charged bodies, as well as permanent magnets. This is how a magnetic field differs from an electric field, which is created by both moving and stationary charges and acts on both one and the other.
The main characteristic of a magnetic field is the magnetic induction vector 
. The direction of magnetic induction at a given point in the field is taken to be the direction along which the axis of the magnetic needle from S to N is located at a given point (Fig. 1.1). Graphically, magnetic fields are represented by lines of magnetic induction, that is, curves whose tangents at each point coincide with the direction of vector B.
These lines of force can be seen using iron filings: for example, if you scatter sawdust around a long straight conductor and pass current through it, the filings will behave like small magnets, positioned along the magnetic field lines (Fig. 1.2).
How to determine the direction of a vector 
near a conductor carrying current? This can be done using the right-hand rule, which is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The thumb of the right hand is oriented in the direction of the current, then the remaining fingers in a bent position indicate the direction of the magnetic field lines. In the case shown in Fig. 1.2, the lines 
are concentric circles. Magnetic induction vector lines are always closed and cover the current-carrying conductor. In this they differ from lines of electric field strength, which begin on positive and end on negative charges, i.e. open. Magnetic induction lines permanent magnet leave one pole, called the north (N) and enter another - the south (S) (Fig. 1.3a). At first it seems that there is a complete analogy with the lines of electric field strength E, with the poles of the magnets playing the role of magnetic charges. However, if you cut a magnet, the picture is preserved; you get smaller magnets with their own north and south poles, i.e. It is impossible to separate the poles because free magnetic charges, unlike electric charges, do not exist in nature. It was found that there is a magnetic field inside the magnets and the lines of magnetic induction of this field are a continuation of the lines of magnetic induction outside the magnet, i.e. close them. Like a permanent magnet, the magnetic field of a solenoid is a coil of thin insulated wire with a length much greater than the diameter through which current flows (Fig. 1.3b). The end of the solenoid, from which the current in the coil is seen flowing counterclockwise, coincides with the north pole of the magnet, the other with the south. Magnetic induction 
in the SI system it is measured in N/(A∙m), this quantity is given a special name - tesla.
WITH 
According to the assumption of the French physicist A. Ampere, magnetized iron (in particular, compass needles) contains continuously moving charges, i.e. electric currents on an atomic scale. Such microscopic currents, caused by the movement of electrons in atoms and molecules, exist in any body. These microcurrents create their own magnetic field and can themselves rotate in external fields created by current-carrying conductors. For example, if a current-carrying conductor is placed near a body, then under the influence of its magnetic field the microcurrents in all atoms are oriented in a certain way, creating an additional magnetic field. Ampere could not say anything about the nature and character of these microcurrents at that time, since the doctrine of the structure of matter was still in its very initial stage. Ampere's hypothesis was brilliantly confirmed only 100 years later, after the discovery of the electron and the clarification of the structure of atoms and molecules.
Magnetic fields that exist in nature vary in scale and in the effects they cause. The Earth's magnetic field, which forms the Earth's magnetosphere, extends over a distance of 70 - 80 thousand km in the direction of the Sun and many millions of kilometers in the opposite direction. In near-Earth space, the magnetic field forms a magnetic trap for charged particles of high energy. The origin of the Earth's magnetic field is associated with the movements of conductive liquid matter in the earth's core. Of the other planets in the solar system, only Jupiter and Saturn have noticeable magnetic fields. The magnetic field of the Sun plays a crucial role in all processes occurring on the Sun - flares, the appearance of spots and prominences, the birth of solar cosmic rays.
Magnetic fields are widely used in various industries, in particular when cleaning flour in bakeries from metal impurities. Special flour sifters are equipped with magnets that attract small pieces of iron and its compounds that may be contained in flour.
