World history in brief. Cheat sheet on world history. Kudryavtseva I.A.

1500 BC The beginning of the penetration of Aryan tribes into India

605-582 BC Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon

594 BC Solon's reforms in Athens

558-530 BC Reign of Cyrus II in Persia

522-486 BC Reign of Darius I in Persia

510 BC Fall of tyranny in Athens

510 BC The Rise of the Roman Republic

500-449 BC Greco-Persian Wars

486 BC Death of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)

479 BC Death of Confucius

444-429 BC Pericles at the head of Athens

431-404 BC Peloponnesian War in Greece

338 BC Battle of Chaeronea between Greeks and Macedonians

336-323 BC Reign of Alexander the Great

334-325 BC Eastern campaigns of Alexander the Great

268-231 BC Reign of Ashoka in India

250-130 BC Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

250 BC - Parthian Kingdom 130 AD

246-210 BC Reign of Qin Shi Huang in China

229-201 BC 2nd Punic War of Rome and Carthage

206 BC - Han Dynasty in China

44 BC Assassination of Julius Caesar in Rome

30 BC-192 AD Early Roman Empire (principate)

30 BC - 14 AD Reign of Octavian Augustus in Rome

1-400 AD Kushan kingdom

226-552 Sasanian kingdom

306-337 The reign of Constantine in the Roman Empire

313 Edict of Milan on Tolerance

325 First Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church in Nicaea

330 Transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople

394 Christianity declared the state religion of the Roman Empire

395 Division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern

410 Capture of Rome by the Visigoths

418-714 Kingdom of the Visigoths

439-534 Kingdom of the Vandals

476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire

481-511 Reign of Clovis in the Frankish Kingdom

493-555 Ostrogothic kingdom

527-565 Reign of Justinian I in the Byzantine Empire

568-774 Lombard Kingdom

622 Flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina (Hijra)

630 Formation of the Arab Caliphate

661-750 Umayyad Caliphate

679-1018 First Bulgarian Kingdom

732 Victory of Charles Martell over the Arabs at Poitiers

750-1055 Abbasid Caliphate

756 Formation of the Papal State

768-814 Reign of Charlemagne in the Frankish State

8OO Proclamation of Charlemagne as Emperor

843 Partition of the Frankish Empire

863 Mission of Cyril and Methodius to the Great Moravian State

882 Unification of Rus' under the rule of Oleg

907, 911, 944 Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium

912-945 Igor's reign in Rus'

936-973 Reign of Otgon I in Germany

967-971 Campaigns of the Russian Prince Svyatoslav

969-1279 Song Dynasty in China

980-1015 The reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich in Rus'

987-1328 Capetian Dynasty in France

988 Baptism of Rus'

1001 Beginning of Muslim conquests in India

1019-1054 The reign of Yaroslav the Wise in Rus'

1054 Final division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox

1055 Capture of Baghdad by Seljuk Turks

1066 Norman conquest of England

1072 Creation of the “Russian Truth” of the Yaroslavichs in Rus'

1096-1099 First Crusade

1097 Lyubech Congress of Russian Princes

1113-1125 Board of Vladimir Monomakh in Kyiv

1147 First mention of Moscow

1176 Battle of Legnano

1187-1396 Second Bulgarian Kingdom

1198-1216 Pope Innocent III

1200 The emergence of the University of Paris

1204 Capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders

1211 Beginning of the Mongol conquests led by Genghis Khan

1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolos

1215 Magna Carta signed in England

1223 Battle of Kalka

1237-1240 Batu's invasion of Rus'. The beginning of the Horde yoke

1240 Battle of the Neva

1242 Battle of the Ice

1265 Parliament begins in England

1279-1368 Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China

1291 Swiss Confederation begins

1325-1340 Board of Ivan Kalita in Moscow

1328-1589 Valois dynasty in France

1337-1453 Hundred Years' War

1348-1349 "Black Death" (plague) in Europe

1359-1389 The reign of Dmitry Donskoy in Rus'

1368-1644 Ming Dynasty in China

1370-1405 Timur's reign in Samarkand

1380 Battle of Kulikovo

1389 Battle of Kosovo

1410 Battle of Grunwald

1419-1434 Hussite Wars

1425-1462 The reign of Vasily II the Dark in Rus'

1429-1430 Victories of Joan of Arc in France

1439 Florentine Union of Catholic and Orthodox churches

1445 Invention of printing by Gutenberg

1453 Capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks

1455-1485 War of the Roses in England

1461-1483 Reign of Louis XI in France

1462-1505 The reign of Ivan III in Rus'

1478 Annexation of Novgorod to Moscow

1479 Unification of Aragon and Castile into the Kingdom of Spain

1480 Liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke

1485-1603 Tudor dynasty in England

1492 Completion of the Reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula

1492 Discovery of America by Columbus

1494-1559 Italian Wars of France

1497-1498 Discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gama

1497 Code of Laws of Ivan III

1500-1537 Russo-Lithuanian wars (intermittent)

1505-1533 Board Vasily III in Rus'

1517 Luther's speech. Beginning of the Reformation

1519-1521 Circumnavigation Magellan and his companions

1519-1521 Conquest of Mexico by Cortez

1520-1566 Reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent in Turkey

1524-1525 Peasants' War in Germany

1526 Babur's conquest of North India.

1532-1536 Spanish conquest of Peru

1533-1583 Reign of Ivan IV the Terrible in Russia

1540 Papal approval of the Jesuit Order

1547 Ivan the Terrible crowned king

I 549 First Zemsky Sobor in Russia

1552 Annexation of the Kazan Khanate to Russia

1555 Augsburg religious world

1556 Annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate to Russia

1556-1605 Akbar's reign in the Mughal Empire of India

1558-1583 Livonian War

1558-1603 Elizabeth's reign in England

1562-1598 Religious wars in France

1566-1572 Oprichnina in Russia

1566-1609 Dutch liberation struggle against Spain

1569 Formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

1572 Battle of Molodi

1572 St. Bartholomew's Night in France

1581-1585 Ermak's campaign in Siberia

1581-1597 Decrees on the enslavement of peasants in Russia

1588 England defeats the Spanish “Invincible Armada”

1598 Edict of Nantes by Henry IV in France

1598-1605 The reign of Boris Godunov in Russia

1600 Founding of the East India Company in England

1605-1613 Time of Troubles in Russia

1612 Liberation of Moscow by the militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky

1613-1645 The reign of Mikhail Romanov in Russia

1618-1648 Thirty Years' War

1624-1642 Reign of Cardinal A. Richelieu in France

1632-1634 Smolensk War

1639 Beginning of the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan

1640 The beginning of the English Revolution of 1642-1649. English Civil War

1643-1715 Reign of Louis XIV in France (independently - after 1661)

1644 Beginning of the Manchu Qing dynasty in China

1645-1676 The reign of Alexei Mikhailovich in Russia

1648-1650 Urban uprisings in Russia

1653-1658 Cromwell Lord Protector of England

1654-1667 Russian-Polish War

1670-1671 Uprising led by S. Razin in Russia

1676-1681 Russo-Turkish War

1682-1725 Reign of Peter 1 the Great in Russia (independent - in 1689)

1687, 1689 Crimean campaigns V.V. Golitsyna

1688 "Glorious Revolution" in England

1695, 1696 Azov campaigns of Peter I

1700-1721 Northern War

1701-1714 War of the Spanish Succession

1703 Founding of St. Petersburg

1709 Battle of Poltava

1711 Establishment of the Senate in Russia

1711 Prut campaign

1714 Battle of Gangut

1730-1740 The reign of Anna Ioannovna in Russia

1735-1739 Russo-Turkish War

1741-1761 The reign of Elizaveta Petrovna in Russia

1755 Creation of Moscow University

1756-1763 Seven Years' War

1757-1762 Russian participation in the Seven Years' War

1762 Manifesto on the freedom of the nobility in Russia

1762-1796 Reign of Catherine II in Russia

1767 Convening of the Legislative Commission in Russia

1768-1774 Russo-Turkish War

1770 Battles of Larga, Kagul, Chesma

1772, 1793, 1795 Sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

1773-1775 Uprising led by E. Pugachev in Russia

1776-1783 American Revolutionary War

1776 US Declaration of Independence

1783 Crimea annexed by Russia

1787-1791 Russo-Turkish War

1789 Beginning of the French Revolution

1792 Proclamation of France as a republic

1793 Execution of Louis XVI 1796-1801 Reign of Paul I in Russia

1799 Italian and Swiss campaigns by A.V. Suvorov

1799 Napoleon's reign in France begins

1801-1825 Reign of Alexander I in Russia

1804 Proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor

1804-1813, Russian-Iranian wars 1826-1828.

1805-1815 Napoleonic Wars

1805-1807 Russian participation in the Napoleonic wars

1806-1812 Russo-Turkish War

1808-1809 Russo-Swedish War

1810 Creation of the first independent states in Latin America

1812 Patriotic War in Russia. Battle of Borodino

1813-1814 Foreign campaign of the Russian army

1814-1815 Congress of Vienna

1815-1825 National Liberation War in Latin America

1823 Proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine

1825 Decembrist uprising in Russia

1825-1855 Reign of Nicholas I in Russia

1830 Formation of Belgium

1830-1831 Uprising in Poland, Russian-Polish War

1836-1848 Chartist movement in England

1837-1841 Reform of state peasants in Russia

1845-1846, Anglo-Sikh wars in India

1846-1848 Mexican-American War

1848-1849 Revolutions in European countries

1850-1864 Taiping Rebellion in China

1851 Opening railway Moscow-St. Petersburg

1553-1856 Eastern (Crimean) War

1855-1881 Reign of Alexander II in Russia

1857-1859 Sinai revolt in India

1861-1865 American Civil War

1861 Abolition of serfdom in Russia

1861-1870 Unification of Italy

1862-1890 Bismarck at the head of Prussia and Germany

1864 Zemstvo and judicial reforms in Russia

1867 Beginning of the Meiji Revolution in Japan

1869 Suez Canal opens

1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War

1871 German unification, proclamation of the German Empire

1877-1878 Russo-Turkish War

1881-1894 Board Alexandra III in Russia

1882 Creation of the Triple Alliance

1891 Construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway begins

1891-1907 Creation of the Entente

1894-1917 Reign of Nicholas II

1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War

1898 American-Spanish War

1899-1902 Boer War

1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War

1905-1907 First Russian Revolution

1906 Beginning of the Stolypin agrarian reform in Russia

1908 Young Turk Revolution

1910-1917 Mexican Revolution

1911-1913 Xinghai Revolution in China

1912-1913 Balkan Wars

1914 Panama Canal opens

1914-1918 First World War

1917 Revolution in Russia

1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

1918 Revolution in Germany

1918 Collapse of Austria-Hungary, formation of Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia

1918-1920 Russian Civil War

1918-1923 Kemalist revolution in Turkey

1919 Treaty of Versailles

1919-1943 Activities of the Comintern

1919 Establishment of the League of Nations

1921 Transition to NEP in Soviet Russia

1922 Fascists come to power in Italy

1922 Creation of the USSR

1925-1927 Great National Revolution in China

1929-1933 World economic crisis

1929 Beginning of mass collectivization in the USSR

1931 Japanese capture of Manchuria

1933 Establishment of the Nazi regime in Germany

1933 The beginning of F. Roosevelt’s “new course” in the USA

1936-1939 Spanish Civil War

1937-1938 "Great Terror" in the USSR

1937 Japanese invasion of Central China

1938 German takeover of Austria

1938 Munich Agreement

1939 Signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact

1939-1945 World War II

1941-1945 Great Patriotic War

1943 Tehran Conference

1944 Opening of the Second Front in Europe

1945 Yalta Conference 1945 Potsdam Conference

1945 Atomic bombing USA Hiroshima and Nagasaki

1945 Adoption of the UN Charter

1946-1954 French War in Vietnam

1947 India and Pakistan gain independence

1948 Formation of Israel, Arab-Israeli War

1949 NATO is formed. Education CMEA

1949 End of the Chinese Civil War, formation of the People's Republic of China

1950-1953 Korean War

1953 Death of I.V. Stalin

1954-1962 French War in Algeria

1955 ATS education

1956 Suez crisis

1956 Uprising in Hungary

1957 Treaty of Rome establishing the EEC

1957 Launch of the first artificial Earth satellite

1959 Revolution in Cuba

1960 Year of Africa

1961 Yuri Gagarin's flight into space

1961 Berlin crisis

1962 Cuban Missile Crisis

1965 Beginning of economic reform in the USSR 1965-1973. US War in Vietnam

1966 "Cultural Revolution" in China

1967 Arab-Israeli War

1968 Prague Spring

1971 Indo-Pakistan War

1972 Nuclear Missile Limitation Treaty nuclear weapons(OSV)

1973 Arab-Israeli War

1975 Signing of the CSCE Final Act in Helsinki

1978 Reforms begin in China

1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran 1979 Enter Soviet troops to Afghanistan 1985. Beginning of perestroika in the USSR 1989-1991. Removal of communists from power in Eastern Europe

1990 German reunification

1991 Operation Desert Storm against Iraq 1991 Collapse of Yugoslavia

1991 Collapse of the USSR, creation of the CIS

1992 Maastricht Agreements on the EU 1992-1997. War in Bosnia

1993 Collapse of Czechoslovakia

1993 Adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation

1991, 1996, 2000, Russian Presidential Elections

2004 1993, 1995, 1999, Elections to the State Duma of Russia

1994 Fall of the apartheid regime in South Africa 1998. Transition of Hong Kong (Hong Kong) to the jurisdiction of the PRC

1999 NATO aggression against Yugoslavia

2001 Terrorist attacks in the USA

2002 Operation of the United States and its allies in Afghanistan

2003 Operation of the United States and its allies in Iraq

World history

Course of lectures

Moscow 2008

Reviewers: Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor,

Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation A.A. Korolev,

Doctor of Historical Sciences

Professor V.V. Ganin

Alekseev S.V. General history: Course of lectures. M.: Moscow University for the Humanities Publishing House, 2010.

The author's course of lectures by Doctor of Historical Sciences S.V. Alekseev covers general history from ancient times to the present day. The publication includes lists of recommended literature and sources. The course is taught at the Faculty of International Relations of Moscow University for the Humanities.

© S.V. Alekseev, 2010

Preface

The course of lectures “World History” is addressed to first-year students of the Faculty of International Relations studying in the specialty “International Relations”. The course is designed to give students a general understanding of the history of the world from ancient times to the present day.

The course is devoted primarily to events in general history. The concept of “general history” is used in relation to history foreign countries. It should be distinguished from the concept of “world history,” which refers to the history of the entire world as a whole, including Russia. The history of Russia is devoted to the training course “National History”, taught in parallel with the course “World (synchronous) history”, therefore Russian material in this course is presented only as a comparative one, synchronously with the events of world history. But it is obvious that, given the enormous role of our Fatherland in world history, no consideration of universal history can be successful without information from Russian history.

The course of lectures is the author’s and, of course, does not avoid the author’s point of view on the issues being studied. At the same time, the author saw his task not in presenting his own assessments, but in communicating objective factual information about historical events. The course of lectures is provided with a detailed bibliography. It - for each topic - takes into account the main, generalizing literature on the course, publications of historical sources, and the most important scientific monographs.

Topic 1. History: subject, method, approaches

Like all key scientific concepts, the word “history” has many definitions. All of them, again as in most cases, have the right to life. However, they can all still be boiled down to two basic dictionary definitions. Firstly, by history we mean the entire past of humanity. Secondly, history is called science that studies the past of mankind.

The scope and clarity of these generally accepted definitions makes it possible to clearly prefer them to more detailed ones. However, the same capacity may, from a different point of view, turn out to be a weak point, because it does not cover the entire richness of the subject. Let’s take, for example, the very concept of “past.” What does it mean exactly. When exactly does the “past” of humanity end and the “present” begin? Having thought about this question, we can easily come to the conclusion that the object of historical research is enriched literally with every second. Every action committed in the “present”, every word spoken in the “present” becomes “history”, “past” - at the moment of commission and utterance. It is hardly worth separating the “present” from the “past” studied by history. This is hardly possible.

But is history limited to the “past” and the moment-to-moment “present”? No. The main goal of a scientist-historian, like any researcher, is to identify in the past either certain patterns, or, at a minimum, certain “lessons” for the future. This means that history is a science that addresses the future and, moreover, tries to predict it. Thus, from a dry and brief, completely “dictionary” definition, with a careful look we move on to much more impressive images of historical knowledge. History resembles a bridge from the past to the future, thrown across the ever-flowing “river” of the present.

History is often called the “science of sciences,” a comprehensive science. The reasons for this are obvious. All sciences (including historical science itself) developed within the framework of the historical process. Because they become subjects of study by historians. The same can be said, by the way, about literature and art. All great achievements, discoveries and theories in other areas of knowledge and culture of mankind are integral parts of history.

The beginnings of historical knowledge appeared in the unwritten millennia of primitive society. Few sciences can compete with ancient history. History, undoubtedly, earlier than other sciences, was clothed in the form of a text - a historical legend or epic. In the era of ancient civilizations, history, along with philosophy and partly philology, became the ancestor of all others. humanities. All of them at one stage or another separated from the named ancient ones. The oldest scientific texts of many civilizations are historical. Over time, a critical approach to the material being studied develops, and history turns from a recording of legends into a genuine science. The names of the “fathers of history” - Herodotus(c. 484-425 BC) in Ancient Greece, Sima Qian(c. 140 -86 BC) in Ancient China - entered the treasury of world culture.

Of course, the historical theories and ideas of antiquity were significantly different from modern ones. Historical knowledge has come a long way to become a real science. And an equally long road lay ahead before the development of a developed historical method and holistic historical concepts.

At the dawn of primitiveness, in the era of the tribal system, ideas about the historical process as such did not yet exist. All time was divided in the consciousness of primitive man into two segments of incomparable importance. The first was the distant mythological “time of dreams” - the era of the life of revered ancestors, so distant from the present time and unlike it that it is like a dream. The only “historical” texts of the tribal period told about this era - myths. The second, much less important, was the present time, the eternal “now”, consisting of an unreflective sequence of routine, repeating events. Only something unusual at this time (for example, an encounter with the supernatural, incomprehensible) was worth remembering.

Already in late primitive times the situation changed. The sharply increased role of the individual and the awareness of this role gave rise to the image of a cultural hero, rearranging the world in his own way. The actions of the leaders and prominent people of the tribe were perceived as a direct continuation of the exploits of the semi-divine ancestor. The myth entered real history and gave it value. History in ancient legends and epics was the history of individual outstanding personalities, aimed at glorifying them and their native tribe. Naturally, the element of the mythical was very strong here. But at the same time, an idea of ​​the development of history over time appears. In this form, historical knowledge passed on to ancient civilizations, which gave rise to the first historical works.

“Pre-scientific” history had, first of all, two characteristic features that distinguished it from scientific history. Firstly, it was the history of exclusively one people. The history of “strangers” was of interest to the first historians of even ancient civilizations only insofar as these “strangers” came into contact with “their own”. It never even occurred to me to check the history of “our own people” against the historical memory of “strangers” or to objectively compare information.

Secondly, and this is even more significant, the question of the meaning of history, of its laws, was not even raised. Historical theory was replaced by mythological one. In the minds of early historians, the world was a playground for many gods, devoid of integrity and only inevitably passing through “eternal return.” Like nature throughout the year, the world of polytheistic religions went through birth, flourishing and death over and over again.

Since history did not have an independent meaning (except for the exaltation of the royal family), it was only a continuation of the myth, an addition to it. That's why she looks mythological. The kings and heroes of the past are often credited with reigns of many thousands of years, physical descent from the gods, and regular, beyond all likelihood, communication with them. All this is perceived as “reality” - although not ordinary, but special, mythological. In some ancient civilizations - for example, in the intellectually highly developed Indian civilization - a special genre of historical writing did not develop at all.

The first step towards creating a holistic picture of history and giving it independent value was the activity of the “fathers of history” in Greece and China. Herodotus and Sima Qian, and after them their followers, decisively separated history from myth. They even went further (too far, admittedly), trying to rationally interpret the myth itself, turning gods and demigods into ancient kings. Ancient Greek scientists, in addition, were the first to study foreign historical sources, creating truly global histories. For China, which considered itself the “Middle State” of the “Celestial Empire,” this was uncharacteristic. To be fair, we note that at first it was impossible due to the lack of neighboring civilizations.

That Greece and China were the centers of change is not surprising. It was here that it developed rapidly in the 1st millennium BC. secular philosophy that fostered a skeptical attitude towards ancient myths. In the wake of this skepticism, scientific history is born, emerging from the shadow of polytheistic religiosity. But, like early philosophy itself, it continued to adhere to the mythological theory of the development of the world in a circle, the “eternal return.” In this context, history, which was acquiring the scientific method, still did not make sense. In the most powerful powers Far East and in antiquity, court chroniclers saw such meaning only in strengthening their own states. The task of the “Middle State”, imperial China, is to withstand the non-stop whirlwind of “changes”, to conquer and civilize the “barbarians of the four corners of the world”. The mission of the Roman Empire is to turn the wheel of history, returning the “golden age” to earth and uniting the whole world in eternal peace. Unfortunately, reality rather quickly historically destroyed these hopes.

The next and decisive step in the development of history as a science was made with the spread of the world's monotheistic religions - Christianity and Islam. It was in the Middle Ages that the teleology- the doctrine of purposefulness and, therefore, the internal integrity of the historical process. This was due to a number of characteristic features of Christian and Muslim monotheism ( monotheism).

First of all, within the framework of monotheism, the world seems united and logically arranged. Its source is the will and creativity of the only Creator. Accordingly, humanity is finally realized as a single whole, originating from a single source and having a common meaning of existence. This meaning, naturally, was understood religiously.

Another important feature of monotheism was the rejection of mythology in the proper sense of the word. The sacred writings of monotheistic religions spoke not so much about the supernatural itself, but about the interaction of the supernatural with people. True story was still full of supernatural meaning, but now in its own right. The main attention was focused not on myths about the incarnations of natural forces, but on the “sacred history” of humanity itself.

These features were already present in the national monotheistic religions of the pre-Christian era (Old Testament Hebrew and ancient Iranian, close to monotheism). But it was with the advent of Christianity that their potential was fully revealed. Having become a world religion, Christianity (and then Islam) united many peoples with different historical memories into a single cultural whole. The history of this whole could no longer be written based on anyone's tribal tradition. Historians of each new people of the new religious “universe” had to coordinate their information about their native tribe with the already written world history. The key point in determining the purpose of world history now became the very fact of the emergence of world religion as a result of Divine Revelation. The coming of Jesus Christ, the incarnation of God - in Christianity. The chain of prophecies revealing the fullness of faith, crowned with the mission of Muhammad, is in Islam.

Thanks to the existence of the institution of a single Church, the teleology of monotheism took on its most holistic and complete character in Christianity. Taking shape over several centuries, the historical theory of Christians was clearly formulated Augustine Aurelius(354 – 430) in the work “On the City of God”. However, throughout the Middle Ages, many Christian authors in both the Orthodox East and the Catholic West continued to refine it.

In the minds of Christian theologians and historians, history is no longer a closed wheel, but an arrow directed towards a goal. It represents a single and unique work of God, created in voluntary collaboration with humanity. Its beginning is the creation of the world, its goal and end are the eternal bliss of the righteous in a renewed world, cleansed of sin and already “non-historical.” History can also be imagined as a river with many channels, but with a single source and a single mouth. Man is given free will, including the freedom to deviate from the will of God - but all his actions fit into the pattern of Providence. The consequences of each option are foreseen and taken into account by God. The meaning of the story, ultimately, is the confrontation between God, who protects his creation from a voluntary fall, and sin. The culmination is the sacrificial incarnation of Christ and his resurrection from the dead, a guarantee of the future resurrection of all people.

History is filled with a higher meaning, and every human act becomes important in its context. But still, its content is, first of all, religious. Not a single accomplishment of people seems eternal. All human powers, “earthly cities,” are transitory and sinful, although each of them has its own role in Providence. Only the City of God, embodied on earth by the Christian Church, is eternal.

For a Christian author, the category of historical truth becomes extremely important. This was connected not only with the already mentioned rational motive - the need to agree with “external” sources. The Christian historian considered himself as a co-author of the “Book of Life”, a witness at the Last Judgment, an interpreter of what God had already created.

It was on Christian soil in the late Middle Ages that scientific history (like other sciences) reached a new level of development. This was due to special attention to human affairs (due to the concept of free will), as well as the desire to explain history from a human point of view. In Islam in the 9th century. the theory of free will was condemned (though not unconditionally), and the main emphasis was placed on the incomprehensibility of Allah's will. However, this “advantage” of Christian culture contained both a prospect for the development of science and a threat to the Christian worldview itself. This was especially true of Western Christianity, where the desire to rationalize theological theories already by the 15th – 16th centuries. spilled over into a total “scientific” criticism of religion. Accordingly, historical science began to become grounded and lose its religious content.

The development of a renewed historical science in the West, and then in the East of Europe in the 16th – 17th centuries. was largely chaotic in nature. Many authors returned to ancient models aimed solely at praising their peoples. As a result, monumental and absolutely fantastic works arose, glorifying the ancient virtues of the ancestors of the French, Germans, Czechs, and Poles. The art of creating equally fantastic noble genealogies blossomed magnificently. But, on the other hand, a scientific-critical method was also developed. The first classifications of historical sources arose, the foundations of scientific chronology were laid, and archeology was born.

In the 18th century both in Western Europe and in Russia there has been a turning point in favor of scientific-critical trends. It is then that historical science as we know it takes shape. At the same time, theories of the historical process that exist to this day begin to take shape.

Among the enlighteners of the 18th century. an idea takes shape progress– the non-stop movement of society and culture for the better. Now it seemed possible to build an ideal society on earth with the hands of people, and numerous recipes were proposed. This contradicted the Christian theory, according to which all human aspirations are darkened by sin, and the result of the independent development of humanity will be the Antichrist. Nevertheless, during the Enlightenment, the optimism of its ideologists seemed justified.

The bloody events of the turn of the 18th – 19th centuries, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars did not shake him too much. Belief in the ability of man to change society to an ideal state and the inevitability of such changes was preserved, taking on new forms. The most influential in the 19th century. the concept of progress was based on the philosophy of the German thinker Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel(1770-1831). He went down in history as the creator dialectical development theories. According to Hegel, each round of development repeats the previous one, but at a new level. Applied to history, this meant that each stage of endless progress passes through the stages of origin, flourishing, obsolescence and death. After death, he is replaced by the next one, but more perfect. History, without returning to the meaningless turning of the wheel, turned from a finite arrow into a spiral directed into eternity.

In the middle of the 19th century. emerges positive(positive) science and later philosophy positivism. According to the ideas of positivists, science can only be based on visible, verifiable facts. The goal of science is to identify clear laws of the processes being studied. Positive science has also looked for such clear, irrevocable laws in history. Most positivists came to the conclusion that the laws of history lie rather in the sphere of economics and sociology. Some, on this basis, generally denied history the right to be considered a science.

In the middle of the 19th century. The first widely recognized periodization of the historical process also appears. American historian Lewis Henry Morgan(1818-1881) divided the entire history of mankind into three stages - savagery, barbarism And civilization. These terms took root and were later actively used in historical works.

Morgan was a supporter of the theory of universal progress, according to which all nations go through the same stages in their progressive development. At the same time, some peoples can “lag behind”, while others get ahead. Studying the life of the American Indians and the archaeological material already known in his time, Morgan identified three stages in the history of the world. He based his periodization on archaeological features as the most material and obvious. The first stage, “savagery,” begins with the history of man and ends with the advent of pottery. The latter, according to Morgan (and this was confirmed by later research), coincides with the transition of people from hunting and gathering to agriculture and cattle breeding. Thus, Morgan's "wildness" coincides with the Paleolithic and Mesolithic on the modern archaeological scale.

The second stage is “barbarism”. It covers the period from the advent of pottery to the advent of writing. This corresponds to modern concepts, Neolithic, but among most peoples “barbarism” persisted for a long time into the Metal Age. Morgan himself studied “barbarism” using the example of the Indians of the USA and Canada - primarily the tribal association of the Iroquois.

Barbarism is finally being replaced by civilization. Morgan considered the emergence of writing to be the defining feature of civilization. At the same time, he viewed civilization as an “urban” level of culture - this is precisely the meaning of this Latin word. In Morgan's time there was little reason to doubt that writing appeared with or after cities.

Morgan scheme ( evolutionism), despite its conventionality, has gained many supporters. In modern Western science it remains one of the fundamental ones. True, Morgan's followers significantly complicated his historical scale. The era of civilization is currently itself divided into several stages. More “backward” and more “advanced” civilizations are distinguished. Early civilization – agricultural, that is, it is predominantly agricultural in nature. With the increasing activity of urban life and the development of crafts, civilization becomes handicraft and agricultural. It is gradually being replaced by civilization industrial, that is, industrial. Finally, modern civilization, where industry gives way to so-called “high” technologies based on mental labor, is defined as post-industrial or informational.

On the basis of Hegelian philosophy, evolutionism and the ideas of positive science about the clear laws of any development, the formation of the most influential theories of history at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries took place. Were it Marxism And social Darwinism. Both of these theories are options world-historical approach to history, presupposing uniform patterns or trends in the historical process for the whole world.

The founders of Marxism - Karl Marx(1813-1883) and Friedrich Engels(1820-1895). Engels initially borrowed Morgan's progress scheme. But for Engels and other Marxists, the transition from “barbarism” to civilization coincides with the birth class society. Class society in Marxism is a society divided into classes with divergent and often colliding interests. For example, the ancient slave society was divided into classes of slave owners, slaves, free peasants, etc. Namely class struggle Marxist science pays the main attention. Over time, the terms inherited from Morgan almost ceased to be used in it as “obsolete.”

Developed by Marx and developed by Engels, the new doctrine of periodization and development of world history was called formational. According to this theory, society goes through a number of large stages in its development, each of which corresponds to a specific socio-economic formation. Formations differ in character industrial relations. In total, Marx identified six formations - primitive communal system, Eastern (Asian) production method, slavery(ancient slavery), feudalism, capitalism And communism. Of these, communism was presented as the final stage in the development of society, the perfect system of the future, the conditions for which are only created by capitalism.

The engine of history in the primitive era was the struggle of man with the surrounding wild nature. The development of society in these conditions led to the emergence of opposing classes and the apparatus of power of the ruling classes - the state. This was a necessary condition for progress. However, subsequent formations are assessed by Marxism as antagonistic(from class antagonism), based on operation person by person. The main engine of history from now on is the class struggle. Communism is about ending exploitation and class division.

Later, with the modification of the Marxist ideology itself, there was also a modification of the formation theory. Founder of modern social democracy Eduard Bernstein(1850-1932) put forward the concept of communism as an unattainable ideal. The desire for it encourages us to change existing society for the better. Theorists of social democracy contrasted the Marxist idea of ​​the revolutionary breakdown of capitalism with the idea of ​​peaceful evolution towards “democratic socialism”.

The leaders of revolutionary, left-wing Marxism, on the contrary, began to practically implement its ideals. However, again contrary to the founders, this process began in Russia, which was still far from classical capitalism. Bolshevik leader V.I.Lenin(1870-1924) began the process of reworking formation theory for practical purposes. He believed that revolution could well, and even more likely, occur where the previous formation had not exhausted its resources - not “already” weak, but “still” weak. In addition, he was the first to admit the possibility of a transition from feudalism directly to a higher formation. However, Engels already admitted the possibility of such “leaps” - from primitiveness to feudalism.

I.V.Stalin(1879-1953), being the undivided authority in ideology, tried to mold the Soviet version of formation theory into a clear system devoid of internal contradictions. In an effort to reduce the diversity of ancient civilizations to uniform patterns, he removed the “eastern mode of production” from the scheme, leaving only slavery. On the other hand, already in political purposes, he began to look socialism as the first, indefinitely long phase of communism. Socialism was understood as a society already devoid of exploitation, but preserving the state, monetary relations and division into classes.

Already in the 50s and 60s, however, discussions began in Soviet science on certain contradictory aspects of the resulting “five-membered structure.” The very possibility of “leaps” through formation (if not from feudalism to socialism, then from primitiveness to feudalism) was often disputed. Some scientists, not without reason, resurrected the concept of the Eastern mode of production, characterizing with it the ancient and medieval history of the East. Primitive times began to be divided into eras of clan and tribal systems. Since the 80s, under the conditions of perestroika, a “three-term” version of formation theory appeared in Russia. It recognizes only three formations - primitiveness, feudalism and capitalism. Proponents of this version declared “barracks socialism” a variant of feudalism.

Meanwhile, thanks primarily to Western social democrats, Marx’s economic and historical constructions have won recognition among non-Marxist science. This is especially typical for the second half of the twentieth century. At the same time, the preference given to economic history in classical Marxism evokes widespread criticism even among some Marxists. Characteristic approaches of French historical schools « Annals", which flourished in the middle of the 20th century. Having adopted a lot from formation theory, the ideologists of the school at the same time placed the main emphasis on research in the field of culture, religion, and social mentality. The approaches developed by the Annales school, which led away from the limitations of positivism, long prevailed in Western science and influenced further development.

The main competitor of Marxism until the mid-twentieth century. Social Darwinism remained, whose ideas were adopted by representatives of a wide variety of ideologies - from liberals to fascists. The ideas of social Darwinism were based on the theory of biological evolution Charles Darwin(1809-1882). According to it, the formation of new species occurs as a result natural selection, whose main instrument is the cruelest struggle for existence. Darwinism also recognizes the role of artificial selection carried out consciously by man. Social Darwinism takes the next step, applying the ideas of the struggle for existence, the natural, and sometimes artificial selection to human society.

The foundations of social Darwinism are associated with the name of Darwin’s younger contemporary and opponent, the creator of his own theory of “universal evolution” of the English philosopher and ethnographer Herbert Spencer(1820-1903). Spencer was one of the ideologists of positivism, and social Darwinism can be considered as a response to Marxism from the bourgeois spirit of positivist philosophy. Everything in the world, according to Spencer, evolves from less perfect to more perfect. All living things, including humans, struggle for existence. Scientific and technological progress is a way of biological improvement of man and his struggle for self-affirmation in nature.

The struggle for existence also occurs within human society. As a result, the most adapted, developed individuals and classes are selected. Class struggle is understood as a form of interspecies struggle. During its course, non-viable, backward and stagnant forms are either destroyed or die off on their own. Wars and revolutions, according to the concept of social Darwinism, act as an important tool of progress. As an example of the extermination of weak, degenerate individuals, they presented, for example, anti-feudal revolutions and the industrial revolution that destroyed the village.

Progress is cruel, but necessary. As in nature, in society the strongest survives, capable of giving impetus to further development. However, the very arguments about the cruelty of progress, from the point of view of positivism, are meaningless. Morality is the very result of progress. There is no “eternal” morality, a point on which Spencer agreed with Marx. Each new winner formulates his own morality that meets his biological and economic interests. Only that which is beneficial is true and moral.

All this, however, did not mean that for the current moment there cannot be some better social order. Humanity, according to social Darwinism, has always strived for a society that is as free as possible, but protected by the state from anarchy. Such a society both meets the interests of the struggle for existence and prevents it from destroying society itself. It was not for nothing that Spencer became one of the ideologists of English liberalism, and the ideas of social Darwinism dominated the liberal environment for a long time. Social Darwinism gave liberals and ruling circles The West provides a logical and “scientific” basis for their understanding of the historical process. He also gave justification for their specific actions - up to and including colonial conquests. Leonard Hobhouse(1864-1929) became the founder of sociobiology, which was based on the theory of artificial selection. According to him, the ideal person of the new era can be bred, just as breeds of domestic animals are bred.

However, there was also a deep contradiction with the proclaimed ideals of liberalism - first of all, with the idea of ​​​​the equality of all peoples and races, their future merger into a single whole. After all, if the “backward” classes turned out to be dead-end branches of evolution, then this was even more true for the “backward” peoples. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century. this was openly proclaimed, for example, in the USA. And the first half of the twentieth century. became the heyday of racism and fascism. German socialist philosopher Ludwig Woltmann(1871-1907) was the first to combine social Darwinism with German nationalism and racism. He declared the “Teutonic spirit” to be the engine of progress and developed the theory of the biological superiority of the Germans over all peoples. Very soon these ideas were adopted by National Socialism.

The crimes of the Nazis did not contribute to the popularity of social Darwinist ideas. For some time they developed by inertia, but by the end of the 60s they were fading away. Theorist of modern postpositivism Karl Popper(1902-1994) sought to morally justify progress, showing that humanity is striving for a world order that is truly best for itself. This world order is based on “universal human values.” But they are essentially identified with the values ​​of the Western world, an “open society” designed for human self-realization. Popper sharply criticized the formation theory. In his opinion, there are no objective laws of social development. Therefore, the further course of human history cannot be predicted with accuracy. However, there are certain trends in the development of society. They arise under the influence of the collective aspirations of people, those same “universal human values.” As has already been said, the “open society” answers them.

With the collapse of the USSR, an expectation arose in the West “ end of history" This is exactly what the American scientist of Japanese origin titled his work Francis Fukuyama. He counted on the spread of the Western social order and way of life throughout the world - and thereby the completion of the historical process. However, the events of the beginning of the 21st century. refuted this prospect, which was bright for many. In turn, this gave rise to a crisis in the world-historical approach to history as such - not the first for two centuries.

The world-historical approach is generally opposed local historical, or civilizational. According to this approach, world-historical progress does not exist. Individual cultures or civilizations go through different stages in their development independently of each other, according to their own laws. At the same time, it is natural for both the flourishing and the decline of cultures. The civilizational approach is quite popular in our time and competes on equal terms with the world-historical one. Its founders were the Russian philosopher Nikolay Danilevsky(1822 – 1885) and German Oswald Spengler (1880 – 1936).

According to Danilevsky, history is the independent development of civilizations, or cultural-historical types, isolated from each other. Each corresponds to some community of peoples - Western Europeans, for example, or Slavs. Each “type” goes its own way, in its own time, not coinciding with the other. Cultural-historical types resemble plants, animals or people in this respect. Any culture begins its journey with “childhood” and ends with “old age”. There is a struggle for existence between cultures, they are displacing each other from the face of the Earth. Danilevsky considered the Slavic type of culture to be the most resilient.

To Spengler, culture also seemed similar to a living organism and unique, having its own “soul.” Each culture is a self-contained unit, monad. Its average lifespan is 1000 years. Spengler defined the concept of “civilization” in his own way. For him, civilization is a culture in decline, when its main forces are concentrated in cities and it begins to decay. In the place of a lost culture, a new one may arise, but not necessarily a more perfect one. All this was reminiscent of the hopeless wheel of history from ancient polytheistic beliefs. The title of Spengler's main work emphasized the pessimistic pathos of his theory - “The Decline of Europe.”

The Englishman inherited the concept of “monads” from Spengler Arnold Toynbee(1889-1975). He designated only “monads” with the usual word “civilization.” Toynbee contrasted civilization with primitive society, where development proceeds much more slowly. Toynbee explained this feature of primitiveness by the fact that primitive people follow the example of their elders, using the experience of previous generations. A civilized person takes as an example a hero, a leader, a creative personality, which moves civilization forward. The transition from imitation of elders to imitation of leaders is the line that separates primitiveness from civilization.

Thus, progress is the work of the creative minority. It is precisely this that develops civilization, taking on the challenges of a hostile environment. But ultimately these efforts are in vain. Toynbee shared Spengler's views on the inevitability of the aging of civilization. But progress, according to Toynbee, is primarily cultural and spiritual development. From this it was concluded that it was possible to break the bad sequence of birth and death of civilizations. World religions break open the boundaries of monads and transform them into a new quality. From the old civilization a new, more perfect one can be born directly. Toynbee therefore looked with hope into the future of humanity.

The number of theories of history is endless. Some of them, like Social Darwinism, were obvious ideological constructs. Others, such as formational and civilizational, may well exist in isolation from the ideologies that gave rise to them. Obviously, such theories are more useful to the objective researcher. Just remember that any such theory is not a dogma, but a toolkit. For example, for studying socio-economic history and comparing different countries and peoples, the formation concept is more suitable. To identify what is special, to highlight local historical regions, and to study culture and religion, a civilizational approach is more helpful.

When creating in the light of any theory, an honest researcher must proceed from the factual material available to him. Such material is provided to the historian historical sources. The source must be clearly distinguished from historiography- the totality of what was written by historians based on the same sources. Historiography is also naturally taken into account in historical research, but should not replace the source. Source study includes analysis and criticism of sources in order to determine the degree of their applicability and reliability. It is sometimes considered as a special science, and not just as a branch of history.

The modern classification of sources developed mainly in the middle of the twentieth century. The Annales school played a major role in its development, expanding the very concept of “source” far beyond the boundaries of written “documents.” But certain aspects of the classification are still the subject of heated scientific debate. The following are the most established divisions of the source material.

Sources are divided primarily into material(real) and written. Material sources - material remains of previous eras - play an exceptional role in the reconstruction of ancient and medieval history. A significant amount of them are archaeological sources obtained through archaeological excavations. At the same time, material sources play a significant role in the history of modern and contemporary times. Their range is extremely wide - from works of fine art and architecture to household items.

Written sources are usually divided into two large groups - narrative(narrative) and documentary. Narrative sources include historical works, memoirs, works of fiction, and scientific works of past eras. Documentary sources include acts, letters, mass documentation. For the history of antiquity and the Middle Ages, from which documents have not always been preserved, narrative sources play a key role. As we approach modern times, the number of documentary sources increases. For the history of modern times, it is customary to consider them as the main sources. A special group of modern written sources is the periodical press.

In addition to material and written ones, there are a number of other types of historical sources. These are, first of all, sources oral– folklore and oral stories. Next, the sources are highlighted ethnographic– data on the lifestyle, everyday life of the population, folk culture, rituals. A special type is data language– results of research by linguists on the origin and connections of languages, the origin of individual words. For the history of human races and individual peoples, data plays an important role physical anthropology. In modern times, a new broad class of sources appears - photo-, phono- And film materials. Finally, modern times characterized by an ever-increasing number of previously unprecedented sources on electronic media (software, for example).

Some types of sources or methods of working with them are dealt with by special auxiliary historical disciplines. The main ones are the following. Paleography deals with the study of the external appearance of ancient handwritten texts, which is crucial for determining their authenticity. Epigraphy is a collection of inscriptions on stone and various objects, as well as an auxiliary historical discipline that studies them. Numismatics is studying coins. Subject of study sphragistics– act seals. Heraldry engaged in the study of coats of arms. Historical onomastics is at the intersection of history and linguistics, studying the origin of proper names, including geographical names. Genealogy– research of genealogies. Item chronology– dating of historical events.

Many auxiliary historical disciplines eventually develop into special scientific branches or even sciences. Many scientists consider it a special science archeology, which arose in the 18th century. as an auxiliary discipline dealing with the material remains of antiquity.

History is a dynamically developing and multifaceted field of scientific knowledge. Every year the volume of historical knowledge increases, and yet there are still many blank spots in history. This applies to both antiquity - archaeological discoveries occur with enviable regularity - and modernity, the study of which is often complicated by political vicissitudes. But this only means that many new achievements still await future historians.

Literature

Augustine Aurelius. About the City of God. M., 2009.

Blok M. Apology of history. M., 1986.

Danilevsky I.N. and others. Source study. M., 1998.

Danilevsky N.Ya. Russia and Europe. M., 2008.

Kovalchenko I.D. Methods of historical research. M., 2003.

Marx K. Capital. T.1-3. M., 2001.

Morgan L.G. Ancient society. M., 1934.

Popper K. Poverty of historicism. M., 1993.

Repina L.P., Zvereva V.V. History of historical knowledge. M., 2004.

Spencer G. Personality and State. M., 2007.

Toynbee A. Comprehension of history. M., 2010.

Febr L. Fights for history. M., 2000.

Spengler O. Decline of Europe. T. 1-2. M., 2009.

Engels F. Origin of the family, private property and state. M., 2010.

It is impossible to remember well the history of all centuries and all countries. And even if you liked this subject at school, the memory of some historical events is gradually erased. Egor Sennikov has selected 33 books on world history for those who want to refresh their memory or learn something new.

For those preparing for the main school exam

For those who don't remember anything at all

Igor Danilov, Felix Lurie “World history in tables: synchronistic tables, geographical maps”

To begin restoring the memory of history, various chronological tables are ideal. With their help, it will be convenient to compare different events that occurred at the same time. And thus learn to imagine world history whole. This approach is not only convenient and interesting, but also helps to lay the foundation: everything you learn later will be easier for you to integrate into your own system of knowledge about history.

What to add. Irina Treshchetkina “World History in Tables and Charts” is a good collection of various explanatory charts that will help to better understand world history.

Valery Alekseev and Abram Pershits “History of primitive society”

To travel through the world of history you need some kind of starting point - and it is best to start from the very beginning. The textbook by Alekseev and Pershits on primitive society was published a long time ago and, perhaps, in some aspects is already outdated. But it still remains a good source of knowledge about life in primitive times: about hunting and gathering, family and economics, communities and the spiritual culture of primitive society.

What to add. Jared Diamond, The World of the Day Before Yesterday. What people still living in the Stone Age can teach us” - a book by a famous anthropologist talks about how modern traditional societies live (in New Guinea, Polynesia, the Amazon Delta) and how their image is different (or similar) life from ours.

Ancient world

Theodor Mommsen "Roman History"

There are a huge number of books dedicated to the history of Ancient Rome in all its manifestations: culture, military events, literature, politics, philosophy, art. And of course, one cannot even think that one book will be enough to understand everything about Ancient Rome. But if you need to start somewhere, then the thorough work of the German historian Theodor Mommsen is the best choice. Still, it is no coincidence that the second Nobel Prize in Literature in history was awarded precisely for this work. This book was written more than 150 years ago, but in general Mommsen tried to make it interesting and understandable for all readers, and not just specialists.

What to add. Mikhail Gasparov “Entertaining Greece” is a work that briefly talks about the life of Ancient Greece - from slavery and wars to music and theaters.

Mary Beard “SPQR: The History of Ancient Rome” is a non-fiction book by an English researcher of Antiquity about Ancient Rome. About a little bit of everything and questioning everything. The result is a fascinating detective story that tells about our ideas about Rome - and about what happened in reality.

Suetonius “The Lives of the Twelve Caesars” - one of the most famous works of the Roman historian describes the biographies of the rulers of Rome - from Caesar to Domitian. A fairly detailed guide (albeit not very deep) to the life of ancient Roman politicians, which perfectly immerses you in the era.

Shang Yue, Essays on Chinese History. From antiquity to the Opium Wars"

The history of the Ancient World is not limited to Europe. “Essays on the history of China. From Antiquity to the Opium Wars" is a classic, albeit slightly outdated, collection of facts about the development of China from antiquity to the mid-19th century. Moreover, unlike many historical works, published in those years in the Soviet Union, it is not very deeply permeated with an exclusively Marxist, historical-materialist point of view on history.

What to add. Yuri Perepelkin “History of Ancient Egypt” - the work of the famous Leningrad Egyptologist is perfect for getting acquainted with this ancient civilization.

"History of the East. In 6 volumes. Volume 1. The East in Antiquity" - if you want a comprehensive look at the Ancient World, you should start with the first volume of the history of the East of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In it you can read about the Hittites, Babylonians, ancient India, the kingdom of Urartu, Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Middle Ages

Aron Gurevich “Culture and Society” medieval Europe through the eyes of contemporaries"

Recognized by generations of scientists and ordinary readers as a domestic medievalist - and one of his main works dedicated to the Middle Ages. The advantage of Gurevich's book is not only that it dilutes the story he tells with interesting historical anecdotes and details. And also because he tries to talk not so much about the life of the nobility and monarchs, but about the life of the bourgeoisie and peasants. Many examples are well remembered and deeply immersed in the era itself: after all, in the Middle Ages, all stories were often based on small anecdotes and stories.

What to add. Jacques Le Goff "The Civilization of the Medieval West" - one of the founders of the historical school "Annals" in this book spoke about the complex social, political and religious system of Medieval Europe. Le Goff's view is not at all outdated, although the book was published more than half a century ago.

Pyotr Tolochko “Ancient Rus'”

One of the largest specialists in the history of the Old Russian state, Pyotr Tolochko, tried to recreate and describe the history of its development - from its origins to the end of the 13th century. Constant clashes with nomads, ethnic development, significance Orthodox Church and internal political structure. The result is a work from which you can begin to study (or remember) the history of Kievan Rus.

What to add. Boris Romanov “People and Morals” is a monograph that interestingly tells about the life of princes and servants, serfs and priests, serfs and servants.

Charles Mann "1491: New Discoveries of Pre-Columbian America" ​​and "1493: Discovery of the New World Created by Columbus"

Two books by Charles Mann are devoted to the civilization of pre-Columbian America - and the reasons for its destruction. Mann himself sees the reason for the historical clash between the indigenous people of America and the Europeans in the fact that the native American inhabitants were fundamentally ahistorical. They tried not to change the environment and live in harmony with nature, which made them savages for Europeans. On the other hand, Mann talks in detail about how the New World was explored by Europeans and what mechanisms were used to strengthen their position on the continent.

Edward Said "Orientalism"

The great book of the American literary critic and historian Edward Said does not so much talk about the history of the ancient and medieval East, but rather tries to answer the question: how relations between East and West developed. Questions of identity, clashing traditions, mutual attraction and antagonism - all of this is present in Said's book and helps to build a new understanding of the complex intertwined history of Europe and the Middle East.

What to add. John Glubb "Arab Empire" - John Glubb was one of the most prominent figures of British colonialism and spent almost 40 years of his life in the Middle East. His book is fascinating story about the region, albeit not always sincere.

Jonathan Harris "Byzantium: The Story of a Vanished Empire" - brief retelling the main points and reference points of the history of Byzantium.

New time

Fernand Braudel “Material civilization, economics and capitalism, XV-XVIII centuries”

When you study such large-scale eras, it is more convenient to rely on some kind of theory - this helps to put historical events into clear and understandable diagrams. The historian Braudel offers just such a scheme. In his presentation, history is an alternation of world-economies, world-systems, with their own centers, their own characteristics and rhythms. Braudel's view and approach, in general, will be useful not only for understanding the New Age, but also modernity.

What to add. » A history of private life in five volumes. Volume 3. From the Renaissance to the Age of Enlightenment" - history always becomes closer and clearer if you look at the history of everyday life.

Eric Hobsbawm “The Age of Revolutions: Europe 1789-1848”, “The Age of Capital: Europe 1848-1875”, “The Age of Empires: Europe 1875-1914” - a landmark British historian, partly continuing the idea of ​​Braudel, writes about the “long 19th century” - the century empires and how the Western world went from the French Revolution to the First World War.

Dominique Lieven "The Russian Empire and Its Enemies"

A British historian and representative of the Lieven family, many of whose members served in Russia since the 18th century, wrote a book about the formation of the Russian Empire through clashes with other countries. Moreover, Lieven compares Russian Empire with other empires of the same time.

What to add. Piers Brandon's The Decline and Fall of the British Empire - the title of this book parodies the title of the English historian Gibbon's classic work on the Roman Empire. But the narrative itself is constructed in a completely different way - not so serious and a little superficial. But for understanding the essence of British imperialism, it is suitable.

Tatyana Goncharova “History of French colonialism: current problems study” - French colonialism is just as important for world history as British colonialism, but people usually know about it much less.

Alexander Rodriguez, Vitaly Melyantsev, Robert Landa “New history of the countries of Asia and Africa of the 16th–19th centuries” - the new time, among other things, was also a time of active collision between the West and the rest of the world. Therefore, it is important and necessary to understand how European colonialism interacted with local culture, politics and everyday life.

Theda Skocpol "States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China"

Revolutions are an important socio-political phenomenon of modern times. Actually, the word revolutio itself changed its meaning at this time. Now this is a drastic change, a revolution in the entire social (and often also economic) structure. American researcher Theda Skocpol tried to identify and analyze the main features of social revolutions using the example of the three most famous: French, Russian and Chinese. Despite the fact that the methodology itself attracts a lot of criticism, Skocpol’s work is considered a classic for understanding the very phenomenon of revolution, its causes and consequences.

What to add. Barrington Moore “The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy” - American political scientist and sociologist Barrington Moore also devoted a considerable part of his life to the study of revolution and expressed his opinion about this phenomenon.

Modern times

Anthony Beevor "World War II"

Tons of literature have been written about the Second World War, but the opus magnum by British historian Antony Beevor deserves special attention. This book has many advantages: it is not too academic, it makes full review events since the late 1930s. Despite the fact that the book caused a particularly strong reaction in Russia (due to the story about rapes in Germany at the end of the war), Beevor cannot be classified as one of the “denigrators” of Russian history. His story about the war Eastern Front full of respect for Soviet army(the same is true for his books about Stalingrad and the Battle of Berlin). But the main thing is that in Beevor’s book there was a place for everyone - from the American General Mark Clark (who was nicknamed “General Marcus Clarkus” for his irrepressible desire to capture Rome) and Marshal Zhukov to the Chinese partisans and the hand-to-hand battles of Stalingrad.

What to add. Barbara Tuchman "The Guns of August" - today it is increasingly said that the First and Second World Wars should be considered as part of one conflict that began in 1914. Tuckman's book tells in detail how the enlightened world of the early last century slipped into the abyss of the bloody meat grinder of the First World War - and what led to this.

Eric Hobsbawm "The Short 20th Century" is Eric Hobsbawm's pessimistic view of the history of the 20th century, which talks about it as a series of defeats - socialism, capitalism, imperialism, fascism and nationalism. As a result, the development of society and the state has reached a dead end, from which it is not entirely clear how to get out.

Tony Judt. Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945. Penguin Press, 2005

For some unknown reason, the book has not yet been translated into Russian. But you need to read it - because it is difficult to find a more detailed, broad and at the same time deep narrative about post-war Europe. Socialism and capitalism, wars and famines, dictatorships and democracies. More importantly, Tony Judt's book tells how European society, almost destroyed and destroyed by war, found a way and path to restoration, like a Phoenix bird. A relevant and very inspiring story of the post-war world.

8th ed. - R. n / D: 2012. - 136 p.

This manual is compiled on the basis of existing history teaching programs at schools. Contains a brief, systematic presentation of the main facts and events of world history from ancient times to the present day.

The manual allows you to quickly review the course topics studied in preparation for tests, seminars, tests and final exams.

Format: pdf

Size: 5.8 MB

Download: drive.google

Table of contents
5th GRADE. HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 3
PRIMARY WORLD 3
Origins of Man 3
Periodization of primitive history (based on differences
in the material and technology of manufacturing tools) 3
Religion in the primitive
world 4
TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVALITY TO CIVILIZATION 5
New Stone Age And " neolithic revolution» 5
CIVILIZATIONS OF THE ANCIENT EAST 5
Ancient Civilization
Egypt 5
Formation of the Ancient Egyptian state 5
Society structure 6
Key dates in Egyptian history 6
The emergence of civilizations 6
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS OF FRONT ASIA 7
Ancient Babylonian Kingdom 7
The rise of the Babylonian kingdom (18th century BC) -
the reign of King Hammurali (1792 - 1750 BC) 7
Phenicia 7
Hebrew
State of Palestine 8
Religion of the ancient Jews - Judaism 9
Persian Power 9
Assyrian power 10
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS of South and East Asia 11
Ancient India 11
STATE IN ANCIENT CHINA 11
CIVILIZATION OF ANCIENT GREECE 13
Nature and population of Ancient Greece 13
Ancient Greek city-states 13
Ancient Athens 13
Reforms of Solon (594 BC) 14
Ancient Sparta 14
Crete and Mycenae 14
Greek colonization 15
The Rise of Athens and the Rise of Democracy in Athens
(5th century BC) 15
Rise of Macedonia. Subjugation of Hellas 16
Greco-Persian Wars (490-449 BC) 16
The creation and collapse of the power of Alexander the Great 17
CIVILIZATION OF ANCIENT ROME 17
Administration in Rome during the royal period 18
Governance in the Roman Republic 18
Hellenism 18
The power and death of the Roman Republic. Punic Wars 19
Rome's conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean 19
Revolt of Spartacus (74-71 BC) 19
Fall of the Republic in Rome 20
Consequences of the Roman conquests 20
Civil wars and slave revolts in the Roman Republic 20
The Roman Empire is a world power.
The power of the Roman emperors 21
Culture of the Roman Empire 21
Transformation of Rome into a world power 22
The emergence and spread of Christianity
in the Roman Empire 23
Crisis of economy and management
in the Roman Empire in the 3rd century. n. e 23
Late Roman Empire 24
Fall of the Western Roman Empire 24
6TH GRADE. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 25
THE MIDDLE AGES AS A PERIOD OF WORLD HISTORY 25
Periodization of the Middle Ages 25
The Frankish state and its conquests 25
Central administration under the Merovingians 26
The birth of medieval Europe. Barbarian World 26
Barbarian kingdoms in V-VIH centuries 26
Feudalism and classes of medieval society 27
Empire of Charlemagne (768-814) 27
VIKING AGE 28
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE: BETWEEN WEST and EAST 29
Catholic Church and clergy 29
Church hierarchy 29
CRUSADES 31
Protest against domination catholic church:
heresies and heretics 31
Medieval city and townspeople 33
THE MEDIEVAL WEST IN THE XI-XV CENTURIES 33
France in the XI-XIII centuries 33
Estates General 34
England in the XI-XIII centuries 35
Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) 35
France and England in the XIV-XV centuries 36
Jacquerie in France 37
War of the Roses (1455-1485) 37
Wat Tyler's Rebellion in England 38
Germany in the XII-XV centuries 39
Italian states in the XI-XV centuries 39
The Arab Caliphate and its collapse 40
Estate-representative institutions of Germany 40
7TH GRADE. NEW STORY 41
Europe: from the Middle Ages to modern times.
Renaissance and humanism in Europe 41
Great geographical discoveries 41
Reformation in Europe 42
Peasant War in Germany (1524-1525) 43
Counter-Reformation and religious war 43
Reformation in Switzerland 44
Socio-economic development
Western European society in the 1st half of the 17th century in 45
Birth of a new European civilization
Dutch Revolution XVI in 45
English Revolution XVII in 47
Second civil war(1648-1649)
Proclamation of the Republic 49
THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT. BOURGEOIS REVOLUTIONS OF THE END OF THE 18TH IN 49
Formation of the worldview of new times.
Ideas of the European Enlightenment XVIII in 49
England's North American Colonies
and the Southern Colonies of New England in the 17th-18th centuries 50
American Revolution of the 18th century.
Education USA - 51
US Constitution 1787 51
Establishment of a constitutional monarchy in France 53
The main political trends and the most prominent
revolutionary figures 53
Jacobin Club (1791) 54
Jacobin block (1793) 54
Fall of the monarchy. Jacobin dictatorship 55
Industrial Revolution in England 55
Constitution of 1795 56
8TH GRADE. NEW HISTORY (XIX - EARLY XX CENTURY) 57
Industrial revolution of the 19th century. Development of technology
in the XIX - early XX centuries. Changes in the economy
industrialized countries of the West XIX in 57
Europe in the era of the Napoleonic wars 1799-1815.
France: from republic to empire.
Napoleon's wars of conquest 57
Industrial Revolution and changes in society 59
France's wars of conquest during Napoleon's empire 1 59
Countries of continental Europe after the Napoleonic wars:
between reaction and revolution. Congress of Vienna. Feudal-monarchical reaction 60
Territorial changes in Europe 61
France, Germany and the Austrian Empire during the period of reaction.
Second Bourbon Restoration 61
Germany during the years of reaction 62
Prussia and the Austrian Empire during the years of reaction 63
Liberation movement in Italy 63
Revolutionary liberation movement of the 1830s.
in Europe. July Revolution 1830 in France 64
Revolutions of the mid-19th century. in the countries of continental Europe.
February Revolution 1848 and establishment
Second Republic in France 65
Revolution of 1848-1849 in Germany 65
Revolution of 1848-1849 in Austria 67
Revolution of 1848-1849 in Italy 67
COUNTRIES OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX century in 69
Unification of Italy 69
State structure Italy 69
German reunification 69
Unification of Germany with “iron and blood” 69
Government of the German Empire
(according to the Constitution of 1871) 70
Main events of the unification of Italy 70
France: from monarchy to democratic republic 71
Parisian commune. Events
Paris Commune 71
France at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. Features of social
economic development of the country 72
USA and GREAT BRITAIN IN XIX - BEGINNING. XX at 73
Features of the Industrial Revolution in the USA 73
USA in the first half of the 19th century.
Civil War 1861-1865 74
Historical significance second bourgeois
revolution in the USA 75
Rapid economic progress of the USA 75
Great Britain in the 19th - early XX at 75
The Rise of the Chartist Movement 76
Labor movement in England 76
LATIN AMERICA in XIX - BEGINNING. XX at 77
Formation of independent states in Latin America 77
COUNTRIES OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION IN THE LATE XIX - BEGINNING XX in 78
Ottoman Empire 78
Major periods of the Revolutionary War 78
CIVILIZATION OF THE EAST in the XIX-EARLY XX in 79
Traditional societies of the East in the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Japan 79
China 79
India 80
WESTERN COUNTRIES IN THE LATE XIX-EARLY XX in 81
New trends in the development of Western countries 81
Political development of European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. 81
9TH GRADE. RECENT HISTORY 83
FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918) 83
Beginning of the First World War 83
Main fronts and course of military operations
in 1914-1915 83
At the turn of the war. The main fronts and the course of the military
actions in 1916-1917 84
Last years of war 84
EUROPE AFTER THE FIRST WORLD WAR 85
The Versailles system and the beginning of a new era 85
League of Nations (1919-1946) 85
Great Power Plans 86
From new REVOLUTIONS to STABILIZATION in EUROPE 87
Revolution in Germany 87
Main events of the November Revolution 87
Revolution in Hungary 87
THE WORLD IN THE PERIOD OF ECONOMIC CRISIS (END OF 20'S - 30'S) 89
Economic crisis in the USA. "New Deal" 89
Establishment of totalitarian and authoritarian dictatorships
in Europe. The Nazis came to power in Germany 91
Left forces of Europe 92
Establishment of the fascist regime in Italy 93
Popular Front in France 93
Popular Front and the Spanish Civil War 95
The crisis of the Versailles-Washington system. Beginning of aggression
fascist states in Europe 95
SECOND WORLD WAR 97
Beginning of World War II 97
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR.
1945-MID 80s 99
Cold War 99
The split of the post-war world into West and East 101
From detente to new confrontation. International
relations in the late 70s - first half of the 80s 101
WESTERN COUNTRIES IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX CENTURY 103
Post-war changes in the economy and politics of countries
West 103
USA after the Second World War. Transformation of the USA
into a superpower and leader of the Western world 103
Socio-economic development of Western countries
in the 60-80s 104
Political events in the USA in the second half of the 20th century in 105
POLITICAL EVENTS
in GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX CENTURY 105
United Kingdom. Economic situation and political
development of England in post-war period 105
France. Post-war development of the country 107
Germany. Post-war development of Germany 109
Economic development England in the 50s. 111
Italy. Political situation in Italy after
liberation from fascism 111
Italian Left 112
Japan. The position of Japan after the surrender.
Constitution of 1947 113
LATIN AMERICA COUNTRIES 115
Changes in countries Latin America after the second world war
war 115
EASTERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX century in 115
Eastern European countries after the end of World War II
war 115
Political crises of the 50-60s. 116
The crisis of socialism and revolution of the late 80s. in Eastern European countries 117
COUNTRIES OF ASIA AND AFRICA AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 117
Eastern countries on the path of modernization. Egypt 117
India 118
SOCIALISM in Asian and AFRICA COUNTRIES 119
People's Republic of China 119
International relations after graduation
« cold war» 119
MAIN TRENDS IN WORLD DEVELOPMENT AT THE CURRENT STAGE 121
Globalization of social development at the turn of the new millennium 121
International integration
and European Union 121
THREE WORLD CENTERS OF CAPITALISM: USA, WESTERN EUROPE, Japan 123
US 123
WESTERN EUROPE 123
JAPAN 125
GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS OF 2008 127

“A Brief History of the World” is written in such a way that the reader does not have any difficulties or bewilderments and that he reads it like a novel. It gives a general overview of our knowledge of history without any complications and problematic issues, which is necessary as a basis for studying a specific period or the history of a country. It is also useful as a preparation for reading my much more complete Sketch of History. But still, its main goal is to help the general reader (who does not have enough time to study the “Essay”) to refresh and, perhaps, in some way change their faded and fragmentary ideas about the great path traversed by humanity. " Brief History"is not, and cannot be, a condensed retelling of the "Essay" and is a completely independent work.

By the middle of the Cenozoic era, monkeys with anthropomorphic jaws and lower limbs appeared, but only from the Ice Ages can we talk about such traces that can be called “almost human.” However, these are not traces of bones, but of devices and tools. In Europe, among sediments dating back a million to half a million years, flints and other stones are found with obvious traces of processing, apparently intended to make percussion, cutting and scraping tools, as well as primitive weapons. These objects were called “eoliths” (protostones). In Europe there are no bones or other remains of the creature that made them, only the objects themselves. Most likely, it was not an ape, but a very smart one. In Java, in deposits from this period, part of the skull, several teeth and bones of an ape-man were found with a braincase significantly larger than that of any living ape. Apparently, this creature was upright. He was named Pithecanthropus erectus- walking ape-man. In order to imagine what these creators of the eoliths looked like, we have only a handful of fossils at our disposal.

It is only when we move on to the quarter-million-year-old sand deposits that we find other hominid remains. Along with them, many weapons appear, which become more and more advanced as they approach us. These are no longer rough-hewn eoliths, but well-crafted tools, the manufacture of which required considerable skill. They are much larger than similar objects that later came out of the hands of real people. An anthropomorphic jawbone, completely devoid of a chin, much heavier and narrower than that of a real person, was extracted from a sand quarry near Heidelberg. It is unlikely that the tongue of this creature could produce articulate sounds. Based on the size of the jaw, scientists suggest that its owner was a large humanoid creature with long limbs and, possibly, thick fur. He was called Heidelberg Man.

In my opinion, this jaw is one of the most tantalizing mysteries for human curiosity. When you look at it, it’s as if you’re seeing through a cloudy glass a blurred image of someone hobbling through a gloomy landscape, fleeing from a saber-toothed tiger and a hairy rhinoceros. We don’t have time to look at this ugly creature when it suddenly disappears, although the earth is abundantly strewn with tools it has carved for its needs.

An even more fascinating mystery is the remains found in Piltdown (Sussex) in layers dating back to a period between one hundred and one hundred and fifty thousand years ago (some scientists believe that this find is older than the Heidelberg jaw). These are parts of a hominoid skull, much larger than those of modern apes, a chimpanzee-like jaw, as well as a club-shaped elephant bone, carefully carved and drilled, and a deer femur with notches like a counting board.

What kind of animal could drill holes in bones?

Scientists called him eoanthropos, proto-man. It stands completely apart - both from the Heidelberg creature and from modern apes. We are not aware of any other similar remains, but the deposits, starting from a hundred thousand years ago, are increasingly rich in flint and stone tools. These are no longer roughly hewn “eoliths”. Archaeologists distinguish among them scrapers, drills, knives, arrowheads, projectiles, hand axes...

We are getting closer and closer to man. The next chapter will focus on the most mysterious of our predecessors - the Neanderthals, who were, although not completely, real people.

It should be said quite definitely that none of the scientists considers either the Heidelberg man or Eoanthropus the immediate predecessors of modern humans. These are just the closest of our related species.

II. NEANDERTHAL MAN AND RHODESIAN MAN

About fifty to sixty thousand years ago, even before the apogee of the Fourth Ice Age, creatures lived on Earth so similar to humans that until recently their remains were considered human. Their skulls and bones were found and large number the tools they made. These creatures knew how to make fire, hid from the cold in caves and knew how to roughly process animal skins. Like humans, they were right-handed.

And yet ethnologists argue that they cannot be considered real people. It is a different species of the same genus. They had heavy, protruding jaws, a very low forehead and large brow ridges. In contrast to people thumb did not stand up to them from the rest; the neck could not turn so that the head looked back or up. Perhaps they walked bent over, with their heads lowered and extended forward. Their chinless jaws are similar to those of Heidelberg and do not resemble human ones at all. The structure of teeth is also very different. The posterior roots are more complex in their structure and shorter than ours. There are no obvious fangs. The volume of the skull is almost the same as that of modern man, but the brain was concentrated mainly at the back, due to the low forehead. Their mental abilities were also different, which does not allow them to be considered human ancestors. Both mentally and physically they belonged to a different branch of evolution.