Main tropes and stylistic figures. Types of tropes
The lexical system of a language is multifaceted and complex. Therefore, a typology of various lexical means has not yet been developed, since it should be able to recreate the diverse range of human feelings. However, there are three main groups. Expressive means are usually classified into phonetic, syntactic and lexical.
Trope
Lexical means enhance the expressiveness of the language. They are called tropes in linguistics. Typically, trails are used by authors of various works of art when it is necessary to describe the appearance of characters or nature.
A trope, therefore, is a figurative device that consists of using an expression or word in a figurative meaning. The purpose of this technique is not only to create a new meaning, but also to enrich, embellish speech, and give it greater expressiveness. It is necessary to distinguish between tropes and figures of speech. Examples of tropes: simile, hyperbole, metaphor, epithet, personification and periphrase.
Figure of speech
Figures of speech are special syntactic structures that serve to enhance expressiveness. These include antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, ellipsis, syntactic parallelism, lexical repetition, epiphora, anaphora, silence, inversion, polyunion, non-union.
The expressiveness of speech is the features of its structure that help maintain the interest and attention of the reader (listener).
Antithesis
Antithesis is a turnover consisting of a sharp opposition of characters, concepts, images, with the help of which the effect of sharp contrast arises. Antithesis helps to better contrast phenomena and depict contradictions. It is a way of expressing the author’s view of the described images, phenomena, etc. An example can be given as follows: “It lays down softly, but sleeps hard.”
Syntactic parallelism
These are the main figures of expressive speech.
The first description of figures of speech has been known since the time of Aristotle's Poetics. The great scientist called the tropes of speech an indispensable part of the science of eloquence.
Speech tropes include rhetorical figures, figures of repetition, figures of diminution, and figures of displacement.
Rhetorical figures of speech
Rhetorical figures are a special group of syntactic figures that are formally dialogical, but essentially monological: the interlocutor is assumed, but he does not participate in the speech.
A rhetorical question is a phrase framed by a question mark and enhancing the emotionality of perception. The answer to a rhetorical question is not expected. Example: “Who are the judges?” (A.S. Griboyedov).
Rhetorical - a figure of speech, decorated with an exclamation mark and enhancing the emotionality of perception. Example: “The poet died!” (M.Yu. Lermontov).
Rhetorical appeal is an appeal that is used to attract attention. Example: “Heavenly clouds!” (M.Yu. Lermontov).
Rhetorical silence is indicated by an ellipsis. The turnover is characterized by syntactic incompleteness. The meaning of rhetorical silence is to create the effect of gravitas through understatement. Example: “This is not about that, but still, still, still...” (A.T. Tvardovsky).
Repeat figures
What is common to repetition figures is that they are built on the repetition of any part of the utterance.
Anaphora is a syntactic figure built on the repetition of a word or groups of words at the beginning of several. Example: “I like that you are not sick with me, I like that I am not sick with you” (M.I. Tsvetaeva).
Epiphora - at the end of several verses or. Example: “The candle was burning on the table, The candle was burning” (B.L. Pasternak).
Anadiplosis (joint) - repetition of a word or group of words at the end of a verse or at the beginning of a verse or stanza. Example: “He fell on the cold snow, On the cold snow, like a pine tree...” (M.Yu. Lermontov).
Prosopodosis (ring) - repetition at the beginning of a verse and at the end of the next verse or stanza. Example: “The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy” (A.S. Pushkin).
Decrease figures
Decrease figures are a group of figures based on the violation of grammatical connections between members of a sentence.
Ellipse (ellipse) - omission of an implied word. Example: “Ticket - click, Cheek - smack” (V.V. Mayakovsky).
Syllepsis (silleps) is the unification of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic subordination. Example: “It was raining and there were two students.”
Non-union (asyndeton) - omission of unions between or parts complex sentence. Example: “Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hanging down” (A.S. Pushkin).
Multi-union - an excessive number of unions. Example: “...And deity, and inspiration, And life, and tears, and love” (A.S. Pushkin).
Move figures
Movement figures are a group of figures based on rearrangement, changing the traditional positions of sentence members.
Gradation is a figure in which homogeneous ones are arranged according to the increasing intensity of a sign or action. Example: “No, I’m not calling, I’m not crying...” (S.A. Yesenin).
Inversion is a violation of the usual word order. Example: “A blue fire began to sweep ...” (S.A. Yesenin).
Syntactic parallelism is the same or similar arrangement of sentence members in adjacent parts of the text. Example: “The fairy tale will soon be told, but the deed will not be done soon.”
Phraseologisms and catch words
“a sea of tears”, “fast as lightning”, “lightning fast”, “numerous like sand on the seashore”, “we haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”, “[a drunken] sea is knee-deep... [and lu- the lady is head over heels]”, “whoever remembers the old things is out of sight! And whoever forgets, both will!”
Ancient examples
Give me a fulcrum and I will move the Earth. Dos moipu sto, kai tan gan kinas Archimedes
Hyperbolic metaphors in the Gospel
« Why do you look at the straw in your brother's eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye?» ( Matthew 7:1-3). In this figurative picture, a critical person proposes to take the straw out of the “eye” of his neighbor. The critic wants to say that his neighbor does not see clearly and therefore is not able to judge sensibly, while the critic himself is prevented from judging sensibly by a whole log.
On another occasion Jesus condemned Pharisees for what they " blind guides, straining out a mosquito and swallowing a camel» ( Matthew 23:24). Moreover, Jesus knew that the Pharisees strained wine through cloth. These upholders of the rules did this so as not to accidentally swallow a mosquito and become ceremonially unclean. At the same time, they, figuratively speaking, swallowed the camel people, who were also considered unclean ( Lev.11:4, 21-24).
“Faith the size of a [tiny] mustard seed” that could move a mountain is a way of emphasizing that even a little faith can do a lot ( Matthew 17:20). A camel tries to go through the eye of a needle - also hyperbole Jesus Christ, which clearly shows how difficult it is for a rich man to lead materialistic lifestyle, try to serve God ( Matthew 19:24).
Classics of Marxism
What a lump, huh? What a seasoned little man!
- V. I. Lenin. Leo Tolstoy like a mirror of the Russian revolution
Teaching Marx omnipotent because it is true.
- V. I. Lenin. Three sources and three components Marxism
Prose
Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.
N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich
A million Cossack caps suddenly poured into the square. ...
...for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.
- N. Gogol. Taras Bulba
And at that very moment, along the streets, couriers, couriers, couriers... can you imagine, thirty-five thousand couriers alone!
- N. Gogol. Auditor
Poems, songs
And even if I were a black man of advanced years,
and then without despondency and laziness,
I would learn Russian just because
what did he say to them? Lenin.
- Vladimir Mayakovsky. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
I would be a wolf
gnawed it out
bureaucracy.
To the mandates
there is no respect.
- Vladimir Mayakovsky. Poems about the Soviet passport
Friends, I will go out to meet a bear without fear,
If I am with a friend, and the bear is without a friend.
Song from the film “In Secret to the Whole World.” Moose: V. Shainsky, words M. Tanich
About our meeting - what can I say,
I was waiting for her, as they wait natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of harmful consequences! (2 times)
…
What I asked for, I did instantly,
To me every hour I wanted to do wedding night,
Because of you I jumped in front of a train,
But, thank God, it was not entirely successful... (2 times)
...And if you had waited for me that year,
When I was sent to dacha
, -
I would steal everything for you firmament
And two Kremlin stars to boot! (2 times)
And I swear - I will be the last bastard! -
Don't lie, don't drink - and I will forgive the betrayal!
And I will give you Bolshoi Theater
AND Small sports arena
! (2 times)
But now I’m not ready for the meeting -
I'm afraid of you, I'm afraid of intimate nights,
Like residents of Japanese cities
Afraid of repetition Hiroshima
. (2 times)
- Vladimir Vysotsky
Well, judge for yourself: on the wire in the USA
All the hippies with hair have shaved their hair,
They tore off his sweater, chewed off his watch in an instant,
And they pulled the slabs right from runway.
- Vladimir Vysotsky
For four years we have been preparing our escape,
We saved three tons of grub...
Vladimir Vysotsky
Trails
Trails
TRAILS (Greek tropoi) is a term of ancient stylistics denoting the artistic understanding and ordering of semantic changes in a word, various shifts in its semantic structure. Semasiology. The definition of T. is one of the most controversial issues already in the ancient theory of style. “Trope,” says Quintilian, “is change eigenvalue a word or a turn of phrase that results in an enrichment of meaning. Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an insoluble dispute about the genera, species, number of tropes and their systematization.”
Most theorists consider the main types of T. to be: metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche with their subtypes, i.e. T., based on the use of a word in a figurative meaning; but along with this, the number of T. also includes a number of phrases where the basic meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (connotations) in it - such as epithet, comparison, periphrasis, etc. In many cases, ancient theorists hesitate, where to classify this or that turnover - to T. or to figures. Thus, Cicero classifies periphrasis as figures, Quintilian as tropes. Leaving aside these disagreements, we can establish the following types of T., described by theorists of antiquity, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment:
1. Epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin apositum) is a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans - decorating epithet). Wed. in Pushkin: “ruddy dawn”; special attention theorists pay attention to an epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and an epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: “poor luxury”).
2. Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another according to some common characteristic (tertium comparationis). Wed. from Pushkin: “youth is faster than a bird.” Disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures (see).
3. Periphrasis (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) - “a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex phrases.” Wed. Pushkin has a parodic periphrase: “The young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (vm. young talented actress). One type of periphrasis is euphemism - the replacement with a descriptive phrase of a word that for some reason is considered obscene. Wed. from Gogol: “get by with the help of a scarf.”
Unlike the T. listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unchanged basic meaning of the word, the following T. are built on shifts in the basic meaning of the word.
4. Metaphor (Latin translatio) - “the use of a word in a figurative meaning.”
The classic example given by Cicero is the “murmur of the sea.” The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5. Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - “the case when a whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole.” The classic example given by Quintilian is “stern” instead of “ship”.
6. Metonymy (Latin denominatio) - “replacement of one name for an object with another, borrowed from related and similar objects.” Wed. from Lomonosov: “read Virgil.”
7. Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) - replacing one’s own name with another, “as if by a nickname borrowed from outside.” The classic example given by Quintilian is “destroyer of Carthage” instead of “Scipio”.
8. Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - “a replacement that represents, as it were, a transition from one trope to another.” Wed. from Lomonosov - “ten harvests have passed...: here, after the harvest, of course, it’s summer, after the summer, a whole year.”
These are T., built on the use of words in a figurative meaning; theorists also note the possibility of simultaneous use of a word figuratively and literally(the figure of synoikiosis) and the possibility of a combination of contradictory metaphors (T. catachresis - Latin abusio).
Finally, a series of T. is highlighted, in which it is not the main meaning of the word that changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
9. Hyperbole - exaggeration taken to the point of “impossibility.” Wed. from Lomonosov: “running, faster than wind and lightning.”
10. Litotes - an understatement expressing through a negative phrase the content of a positive phrase (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
11. Irony is the expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning. Wed. Lomonosov’s characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a timid and meek man...”
Theorists of modern times consider the three basic texts to be based on shifts in meaning—metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. A significant part of theoretical constructions in the style of the 19th-20th centuries. is devoted to the psychological or philosophical justification for the identification of these three T. (Berngardi, Gerber, Wackernagel, R. Meyer, Elster, Ben, Fischer, in Russian - Potebnya, Khartsiev, etc.). So they tried to justify the difference between T. and figures as between more and less perfect forms sensory view (Wackernagel) or between “means of visibility” (Mittel der Veranschaulichung) and “means of mood” (Mittel der Stimmung - T. Fischer). In the same regard, they tried to establish differences between individual T. - for example. they wanted to see in synecdoche the expression of “direct view” (Anschaung), in metonymy - “reflection” (Reflexion), in metaphor - “fantasy” (Gerber). The tension and conventionality of all these constructions are obvious. Since, however, the direct material of observation is linguistic facts, a number of theorists of the 19th century. turns to linguistic data to substantiate the doctrine of T. and figures; So Gerber contrasts T. as stylistic phenomena in the field of the semantic side of language - with figures as stylistic use syntactical and grammatical structure of the language; Potebnya and his school persistently point out the connection between stylistic technicalities and the range of semantic phenomena in a language (especially at the early stages of its development). However, all these attempts to find the linguistic foundations of stylistic themes do not lead to positive results with an idealistic understanding of language and consciousness; Only by taking into account the stages in the development of thinking and language can one find the linguistic foundations of stylistic phrases and figures, in particular, explain the fluidity of their boundaries as a result of the fluidity of the boundaries between semantics and grammar in a language - see Semasiology, Syntax, Language. It should further be remembered that the linguistic justification of stylistic texts does not at all replace or eliminate the need for literary consideration of them as phenomena. artistic style(as the futurists tried to claim). An assessment of T. and figures as phenomena of artistic style (see) is possible only as a result of specific literary and historical analysis; otherwise, we will return to those abstract disputes about the absolute value of one or another T., which are found among the rhetoricians of antiquity; However, the best minds of antiquity assessed T. not abstractly, but in terms of their applicability in the genres of rhetoric or poetry (for example, Cicero, Quintilian).
Stylistics, Semasiology.
Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
Paths
(Greek tropos - turn, turn), speech figures in which a word changes its direct meaning to a figurative one. Types of trails: metaphor– transfer of characteristics from one object to another, carried out on the basis of the associatively established identity of their individual characteristics (the so-called transfer by similarity); metonymy– transfer of names from subject to subject based on their objective logical connection (transfer by contiguity); synecdoche as a type of metonymy - transfer of a name from object to object based on their generic relationship (transfer by quantity); irony in the form of antiphrase or astheism - transfer of a name from object to object based on their logical opposition (transfer by contrast).
Tropes are common to all languages and are used in everyday speech. In it, they are either deliberately used in the form of idioms - stable phraseological units (for example: dribble on your brains or pull yourself together), or arise as a consequence of grammatical or syntax error. IN artistic speech Tropes are always used deliberately, they introduce additional meanings, enhance the expressiveness of images, and draw the readers’ attention to a fragment of text that is important for the author. Tropes as figures of speech can, in turn, be emphasized by stylistic figures. Individual paths in artistic speech are developed, deployed over a large space of text, and as a result, the expanded metaphor turns into symbol or allegory. Besides, individual species tropes are historically associated with certain artistic methods: types of metonymy – with realism(type images can be considered synecdoche images), metaphor - with romanticism(in the broad sense of the term). Finally, in artistic and everyday speech, within the framework of a phrase or phrase, an overlap of tropes can occur: in the idiom he has a trained eye, the word trained is used in a metaphorical meaning, and the word eye is used as a synecdoche (singular instead of plural) and as a metonymy (instead of the word vision).
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
See what “Trails” are in other dictionaries:
TRAILS (from Greek τροπή, Latin tropus turn, figure of speech). 1. In poetics, this is the ambiguous use of words (allegorical and literal), which are related to each other according to the principle of contiguity (metonymy, synecdoche), similarity (metaphor), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (from the Greek tropos turn of speech),..1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the relationship between direct and figurative meanings words… … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Modern encyclopedia
- (Greek) Rhetorical figures of allegory, i.e. words used figuratively, allegorical meaning. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
TRAILS, see Stylistics. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of publishing house Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial Board: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V. V.,... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia
Trails- (from the Greek tropos turn, turn of speech), 1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the relationship between the direct and figurative meanings of the word... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
Introduction
Tropes as stylistic devices in the Russian language
1 Simple trails and examples of their use
2 Complex paths: metaphor, metonymy, irony
Stylistic figures - syntactic means expressiveness
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
This abstract is devoted to the research topic: “Tropes and stylistic figures.”
The relevance of choosing such a topicis explained by the fact that the semantic-syntactic level is rightly considered an important structural level of artistic speech. Without proper attention to it, scientific knowledge of such a cultural phenomenon as fiction, poetry and prose, is quite problematic and even impossible, because a person’s mental state is reflected, first of all, in the structure of the verbal expression of his thoughts. That is why, among the means of motivational and emotional influence on the interlocutor, the reader, preference is often given to the most diverse syntactic and semantic expressive means, among which a significant place belongs to tropes and stylistic figures.
The linguistic-stylistic study of the system of tropes and stylistic figures of the Russian language is also relevant because it helps to clarify the originality of the linguistic units of literary texts as a manifestation of the ability of domestic writers, including translators, to express the unconventionality and uniqueness of associative connections in the perception of reality, assists in identifying those linguistic means with with the help of which the ideological and associated emotional content of literary works is expressed, and is, in the end, necessary in order to understand all of our and the world's literary heritage.
In addition to these large-scale tasks, the analysis of tropes and stylistic figures allows us to implement simpler, utilitarian tasks - to correctly and beautifully structure our oral and written speech, taking into account the specifics of established national languages traditions, as well as the private rules of linguistics.
1. Tropes as stylistic devices in the Russian language
.1 Simple trails and examples of their use
In the concrete life image of reality that works of literature provide, an important role is played by special means figurative language. They help the writer to translate into verbal form specific ideas about objects and expressions, his attitude towards them. This task is performed not only by individual words and phrases used in direct meaning, as well as words and expressions used in figuratively which are called paths(revolutions).
The trope is based on the transfer of the characteristics of one object or phenomenon to another. With the help of such a transfer, the language of a work of art acquires a special coloring and brightness. This happens because the trope does not give the definition of an object or phenomenon that has become common, but highlights features that usually do not come to the fore.
The transfer of characteristics of one object, phenomenon, or action to others occurs in tropes according to different principles. According to this, different types of trails are defined: simple- epithet and comparisons and complex- metaphor, allegory, irony, hyperbole, litotes, synecdoche, etc.
Let's look at simple paths first. Epithet(from Greek, “application”) is a word that indicates one of the characteristics of a particular object in question, and aims to concretize the idea of it. In O. Shalygin’s “Theory of Literature,” popular at the beginning of the century, this trope was described as follows: “One of the most effective means of enhancing the picturesqueness and emotionality of speech is the epithet. This is the name of a word or several words that are added to the usual name of an object in order to enhance its expressiveness, to emphasize one of its characteristics in the object - precisely the one that in this case is important to bring to the fore, in a way to predispose the reader to special attention to it.” For example: "Through wavy fogsThe moon creeps in sad meadowsShe sheds a sad light..."
The epithet is also called a figurative or poetic definition, thus emphasizing its opposition to the logical definition of the subject, the task of which is also to concretize the idea of the subject.
However, unlike the logical one, the poetic definition is not intended to indicate such characteristics of an object that could separate it in our imagination from other similar objects. An epithet that emphasizes the most characteristic feature of an object can be called characterological or explanatory. An epithet sometimes does not just highlight characteristic feature subject, and also strengthens it. Such epithets can be called reinforcing. For example: “Love crazy anxietyI experienced joylessly" (A. Pushkin.), "In snowy branches of black jackdaws, black jackdawsshelter” is a tautological strengthening (A. Akhmatova).
In addition, there are clarification(From the moon big lightStraight to our roof (S. Yesenin) and contrasting (« living corpse"(L. Tolstoy), " joyful sadness"(Korolenko) epithets. Sometimes it can be difficult to clearly differentiate them and distinguish one from the other.
Based on their usage, epithets can be divided into permanent and contextually authorial. Historically, an earlier form of the epithet is permanent epithet. A permanent epithet is an epithet that traditionally accompanies the designation of an object, being permanently assigned to it, within a certain artistic style. For example, in folk poetry, if it is mentioned steppe, then she almost always - wide, sea - blue, the wind is violent, grove - green, eagle - blue-wingedetc.. A constant epithet is distinguished by the fact that it emphasizes the characteristic feature not of a given, specific object, the one about which it is spoken of “right now” and “right here,” but of the subject in general, regardless of the characteristics of the context in which it is mentioned .
Contextual-author's- this is an epithet, which is the predominant sign of the realistic style, which requires accuracy, and not exclusively poetic expression, correspondence, realism of what is defined in the subject with the defined subject itself, those specific circumstances in connection with which this subject is mentioned. For example: "color fragrant love"(V. Zhukovsky), "breathing all-victorious spring"(A. Fet).
By comparison(Latin “comparatio”) is a verbal expression in which the idea of the depicted object is concretized by comparing it with another object, such that it contains the signs necessary to concretize the idea in a more concentrated manifestation. For example, " Like the corechained to his leg globe"(M. Voloshin), in which the sign of shape and heaviness globe figuratively revealed in a “concentrated” form. The comparison has trinomial structure:
that which is being compared, or the “subject” of comparison (lat. comparandum),
that with which it is compared, “image” (lat. comparatum),
that on the basis of which they are compared with each other, the sign by which the comparison takes place (lat. tertіum comparatіonis).
For example, in comparison from the poem by Z. Gippius “I met a little devil, Thin and puny - like a mosquito"("Little Devil") "subject of comparison" - "little devil", image "mosquito", signs of comparison - "thin and puny".
In the system of means of poetic diversity of speech, comparison appears, or, more precisely, is psychologically perceived as form of epithet complication, a kind of expanded, complex epithet. In the classification of comparisons it is customary to distinguish simple(objects are compared with each other or with homogeneous features, for example “She is sitting calm like Buddha"(A. Bunin), extended (Black tailcoats flashed and rushedseparately and in heaps here and there, how flies flyon white shining refined sugar during the hot July summer, when the old one chops and divideshim onto the sparkling wreckage in front of the open window; ... back and forth on the sugar heap, rub your hind or front legs one against the other, or scratch them under your wings..." (G. Gogol), connecting(the presence of connecting conjunctions “so”: “isn’t it”, etc., for example, “He was a client of our house ....Isn't it the Romanshired Greek slaves to show off a tablet with a learned treatise at dinner?” (O. Mandelstam) and negative comparisons(built not on comparison, but on opposition, for example, “ Not a starglitters far away in an open field - the light is smokinglittle one" (folklore).
1.2 Complex tropes: metaphor, metonymy, irony
A group of complex tropes is formed by metaphor, metonymy, as well as irony and sarcasm with their components, which we have to analyze.
Metaphor(from the Greek “transfer”) is a word whose meaning is transferred to the name of another object associated with the object to which this word usually indicates, by similarities. This is a figurative expression in which the characteristics of one object or action are transferred to others. For example, "Bee from wax cellsFlies for field tribute” (A. Pushkin). So the metaphor is as if hidden comparison. IN artistic language Metaphor is a phenomenon of figurative thinking, as it excites and enriches the imagination and provides emotional coloring to perception. It is not for nothing that they were used and studied by ancient Greek and Roman philosophers and orators - Aristotle, Socrates, Cicero, etc. Metaphors are extremely diverse: among them are personification, allegory, symbol, and oxymoron.
Personification(personification, prosopopoeia) occurs when certain objects are compared with a person or living beings and their properties, for example, “ the sea laughed"(M. Gorky).
Allegoryor allegory (Greek allegoria,) - a method of two-level artistic depiction, which is based on concealing real persons, phenomena and objects under specific artistic images with corresponding associations with characteristic features hidden. For example: " Say the word - he will give you a ruble"(folklore) Allegorical images are predominantly the embodiment of abstract concepts that can always be revealed analytically; they are most vivid in literary fables and satirical works. They are used to build parables, apologies, parabolas, which have long been used in myths, religious texts and works (the gods Hercules is an allegory of strength, the goddess Themis is an allegory of justice, the lamb is an allegory of innocence), polemical works, and school religious drama.
However, one should not confuse allegory with symbol, since it is meaningful, and allegory clearly expresses the essence of a phenomenon or object. An example of a symbol is in the poem Charles Baudelaire “Albatross”a bird that expresses the poet's suffering. Symbols developed from oral folk art based on parallelism: red viburnum - girl; falcon - guy etc.
Generally possible different shapes grammatical expression of metaphor. Most often it is expressed by a verb and its forms or an adjective (metaphorical epithet), as a result of which, in particular, a metaphor expressed by a noun is perceived better.
Metonymy- this is the second large group of complex tropes, which includes figurative expressions in which an object or phenomenon is described by replacing the name of another object or phenomenon associated with the first external or internal connections. For example, an expression such as “all the theater applauded", contains a metonymy expressed by the word "theater". This word is used here not in a literal, but in a figurative sense, since when we say this, we mean not that the theater applauded, but the spectators who were in it. At the same time, the concepts of “theater” and “spectators” are in close relationship, acting as close by their very nature, real, and not conditional, as is the case in metaphor. Metonymy is often identified with metaphor, or considered as its variety. However, they should still be distinguished. In this case, metonymy of place, time, space and belonging can be used.
The varieties of metonymy itself are synecdoche, periphrasis, hyperbole and litotes.
Synecdoche -one of the common types of metonymy is a figurative expression based on a quantitative comparison of objects and phenomena; on replacing a part of the whole, one object - their totality. Synecdoche is used in three cases:
expression of a homogeneous population with the corresponding word in the singular (for example, “And it was heard before dawn the Frenchman rejoiced"(M. Lermontov);
replacing the whole with a part (Most of all take care <...> a penny" (N. Gogol);
replacing a genitive concept with a specific one and vice versa (for example, “We Alllet's see to Napoleons" (A. Pushkin).
Periphrase(Greek “description, retelling”) is a figurative expression in which the name of an object or phenomenon is replaced by a description of its characteristics. For example: instead of A. Pushkin, you can say - the author of the poem “Eugene Onegin”.
Hyperbola(Greek “exaggeration”) - a figurative expression that represents an artistic exaggeration of the size, strength, significance of an object or phenomenon. Many catchphrases are examples of hyperbole: “ haven't seen each other for a hundred years», « fast as lightning"etc.
Unlike hyperbole, litoteson the contrary, it provides for an artistic reduction of signs, for example, “In large boots, in a sheepskin coat, in large mittens... and from the nail itself! (A. Nekrasov). At the heart of hyperbole and litotes there is always an element of a certain absurdity, a sharp contrast to common sense.
Ironyas a trope, it is a figurative expression in which a word or group of words takes on a meaning opposite to the main one. And sarcasm is an evil, bitter irony, for example, “we are rich, barely out of the cradle, by the mistakes of our fathers and their late mind...” (M. Lermontov).
Ironic or sarcastic intonation reveals itself in a context that is more or less close to other statements of the author, the general tone of which makes it possible to catch in each individual case an ironic intonation that has not been directly identified. Sometimes antiphrasis(contrast) for example, " this Croesus"(relative to a poor person). Less common are expressions that take the form of the so-called astheism, i.e. approval in the form of condemnation. For example, from A. Chekhov: “The little dog is wow ... Angry, rascal... such a bummer...».
2. Stylistic figures - syntactic means of expressiveness
Beyond the trails important means The imagery of the Russian language is also represented by stylistic figures.
Stylistic figure(Latin “stіlus” - writing pencil and “figura” - image, appearance) - unusual syntactic phrases that violate language norms and are used to decorate speech. Stylistic figures are quite common in poetry, where they are intended not only to individualize the author’s speech, but also to enrich it with emotional nuances and make the artistic image more expressive. Therefore, stylistic figures are also called figures of poetic speech. It is necessary to strictly distinguish stylistic figures from tropes that are not built according to a syntactic principle. Among the main and most used stylistic figures are anaphora, epiphora, ring (anepiphora), parallelism, gradation, ellipsis, inversion, chiasmus, anacoluth, asyndeton, polysyndeton.
Let's analyze them in more detail. Anaphora(from Greek - bringing up, repetition) - a stylistic figure that is formed by repeating words or phrases at the beginning of adjacent linguistic units. For example, " I swearI am the first day of creation, I swearhis last day. I swearthe shame of crime And the triumph of eternal truth...” (M. Lermontov).
Most often, anaphora is found in poetic texts, less often in prosaic texts. Prosaic anaphorausually connects the beginnings of adjacent sentences, for example: “ Whateverpeople tried, gathered in one small place..., no matter howthey stoned the ground so that nothing would grow on it...” (L. Tolstoy). Very rarely, anaphoric repetition connects not adjacent, but separated linguistic units in the text, for example, the beginnings of chapters of a story or novel. Prosaic anaphora most often enhances and makes more emotionally expressive the content of what is being told, although it can also perform a purely compositional function, which usually marks anaphoric repetition in poetic texts, where anaphora serves as an additional (along with a constant pause) signal of the end of the previous line and start of the next one. Often, anaphoric repetition can be maintained throughout the entire poetic work (usually small in volume).
The opposite of anaphora is such a stylistic figure as epiphora- repetition of individual words or phrases at the end of adjacent linguistic units: “Here we came to the shore guests, Tsar Saltan is calling them on a visit..." (A. Pushkin). Epiphora is much less common in prose: “I would like to know why I titular councilor? Why exactly titular councilor? (N. Gogol). Sometimes also isolated epanaphora (jointor anadiplosis) - repetition of a word or phrase at the end of the previous linguistic unit, as well as at the beginning of the next one, for example: “The barrels rolled with a fierce potion, With a fierce potion, with black gunpowder..." (folklore). Such repetition is most often found in folklore, but sometimes, mainly as a compositional device, it is also used in prose. An interesting example is contained in the famous novel M. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, the twenty-fourth chapter of which ends like this: “... and as much as she wanted, at least until dawn, Margarita could rustle the letters of the notebooks, look at them and kiss them, and re-read them again: - The darkness that came from the Mediterranean, covered the garden hated by the procurator... Yes, darkness,” and the twenty-fifth begins with the words: "The darkness that came from the Mediterranean, covered the garden hated by the procurator. The hanging bridges connecting the temple with the terrible Anthony Tower have disappeared, and an abyss has fallen from the sky...”
Ringor anepithorais a stylistic figure of speech that connects by repetition of individual words or phrases the beginning and end of adjacent linguistic units (paragraph, stanza) and/or one unit (sentence or poetic line). Explaining the name of this figure, literary theorists, in particular, write: “The repetition of the initial word or phrase at the end of that very sentence, verse, stanza or whole play, due to which this sentence or a series of sentences that form a logical unity receive a certain kind of rounding; hence the name of the figure.” For example: " In vain! Wherever I look, I meet failure everywhere, And it is painful to my heart that I am obliged to lie all the time; I smile at you, but inside I cry bitterly, In vain"(A. Fet).
Often Anepiphora is also simploc- a combination of anaphora and epiphora, which is reflected in the very name of the term: “ Young people are treasured everywhere, Old people are honored everywhere."(V. Lebedev-Kumach).
The next similar stylistic figure is parallelism(Greek “the one that comes next”) or syntactic parallelism is a figure based on the same type of syntactic construction of two or more adjacent linguistic units, mainly lines of poetic text, which gives rise to a feeling of their symmetry. For example: " Your mind is as deep as the sea, Your spirit is as high as the mountains."(V. Bryusov).
Most often, parallelism, symmetry in the syntactic construction of adjacent poetic lines is accompanied by a figurative comparison of the thoughts expressed in them - the so-called figurative psychological parallelism: for example, between the life of nature and fragments of human life. Parallelism can often involve symbols, which we wrote about earlier when analyzing tropes. Therefore, we can come to the conclusion that tropes and stylistic figures do not exclude, but complement each other.
Parallelism occupies an important place in the Russian language, especially in poetry, and has been known since ancient times. Most often it is also used in folk poetry. It gained significant popularity in romantic poetry at the beginning of the 19th century, often as a stylization of folklore motifs. This stylistic figure can form the compositional basis of a lyrical poetic work.
Gradation- this is a stylistic figure, which consists in gradually pumping up funds artistic expression for the purpose of promotion (so-called menopause, for example, “In the sweet-foggy care Not an hour, not a day, not a yearwill leave..." E. Baratynsky) or demotion ( anticlimax, For example, " I won’t break, I won’t waver, I won’t get tired, Not a bitI will not forgive my enemies” O. Bergolz) of their emotional and semantic significance. The gradation differs according to spatio-temporal (mainly in prose), intonation-emotional (poetry) and psychological (drama) characteristics. The expressiveness of gradation is enhanced by combining it with anaphora, for example, in the famous saying of Julius Caesar: “I came, I saw, I conquered!”
Ellipsis(Greek - “omission”, “lack”) is a stylistic figure constructed by omitting a word or several words. For example, “Eyes like the sky, blue, smile, flaxen curls - everything is in Olga... (A. Pushkin). In this case, the poet omitted the word “combined” or something similar in meaning. Ellipsis can enhance the dynamism of a phrase, the tension of changes in action, emphasize laconicism, lyrical emotion, and conversational intonations. It is often found in proverbs and sayings. This figure can form the basis of an entire work of art, especially a poetic one, or part of it.
Has always been quite in demand inversion- a stylistic figure based on a violation of the order of words in a sentence that seems normalized, ordinary, for example, “ An old man obedient to Perun alone..." (A. Pushkin), instead of "An old man obedient to Perun alone." Russian, like other East Slavic languages, belongs to languages with a free order of words in sentences, however, a certain syntactic sequence, due to its familiarity, as well as due to its subordination to the logic of the unfolding of the expressed thought, seems more natural, while changing such a sequence psychologically perceived as a deviation from a certain constant norm. Logical sequence of thought developmentregulates, in particular, the order of the main members of the sentence, which form a kind of syntactic skeleton of the expressed thought. The normal logical sequence of thought development presupposes its movement from what is already known (i.e., what has already been said, or what is presented as obviously known) to the unknown, what, in fact, is reported about this “already known” and fixes there are some changes in it. Since the “already known” in a sentence is usually expressed through the subject (subject of thought), and the “unknown”, new through the predicate (predicate of thought), then it is natural or, as they also say, word order will be straight, in which the predicate will be placed after the subject, and inversionwill be theirs reverse order: predicate before subject.
If the syntactic order of the main members of a sentence is regulated by the norms of the logical sequence of the unfolding of the expressed thought, then the order of the minor members of the sentence in each national language is established by the historically established norms of the syntactic construction of verbal constructions. In particular, for the Russian language it will be more natural to place complements and adverbial adverbials expressed by nouns in the position - after the word to which they relate, and definitions and adverbial adverbs in the position - before the word to which they relate. The reverse order of their placement is perceived as inverted. For example, “In the evening, in stormy autumn, In the distantthe maiden was walking places..." (A. Pushkin).
Inversion individualizes and emotionally emphasizes speech and its components. But this is not its main function. The syntactically inverted order of sentence members serves, first of all, the purpose of highlighting individual words that are most significant in the context of a given utterance. This inversion function reveals itself especially clearly in the case when the inverted word not only changes its generally accepted syntactic position, but at the same time is also separated from the member of the sentence to which it is subordinated.
A type of inversion is chiasmus- a linguostylistic device used in poetry, the essence of which is to rearrange the main members of a sentence to increase the expressiveness of poetic speech, for example: “ Dividefun - everyone is ready: Nobodydoesn't want sadness to share"(M. Lermontov).
A similar variety can be considered anacoluthon- a stylistic figure constructed with a violation of grammatical consistency between words, members of a sentence, for example, “ Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off"(A. Chekhov). As we can see, anacoluth is used deliberately, more often to give an ironic or comic tone to speech in its given context.
Somewhat reminiscent of the inversion and asyndetonor asyndeton- a stylistic figure that consists of omitting conjunctions that connect individual words and parts of phrases. For example: " Night, street, lantern, pharmacy, Pointless and dim light"(A. Blok). Non-conjunction enhances the expressiveness of speech, emphasizing the dynamic aspect in it, and serves to highlight individual words.
The opposite of asyndeton is polysyndetonor multi-union- a cluster of conjunctions that connect individual words and parts of a phrase, for example, “The ocean walked before my eyes, Andswayed Andthundered Andsparkled Andwas fading away Andglowed Andwent somewhere into infinity” (V. Korolenko). Polyconjunction is used as a means that slows down speech, serves to highlight significant words, and makes speech solemn, since it is often associated with polyconjunctive syntactic constructions of biblical texts. The figure of a multi-union can be formed, firstly, different unions. Secondly, not only by unions as such, but also by other in official words, which are obtained in the context of the conjunction function.
Rarer stylistic figures include pleonasm and tautology, as well as amplification, paronomasia(comparison of similar sounding but different meaning words) and antithesis(contrast).
Pleonasm(Greek “excess”) is a stylistic figure that is based on a synonymous repetition of the previous word, for example, “fell down”, “ gestured with his hands», « nostalgia for homeland», « top priority», « incriminate", "a hackneyed platitude." Pleonastic repetition is not logically motivated and is used as a means of stylistic diversity in speech. Most often it is used in folklore, but it is also found in original poetry.
Related to pleonasm tautologyinvolves repetition of words with the same root, for example: “ wonderful miracle, wonderful miracle"etc.
Amplification(Latin “spread”, “increase”) - a stylistic figure that consists in the emphasized accumulation within adjacent statements (usually one, two or three sentences or a short paragraph) of the same type of language units, for example, “ Beret- like a bomb, beret- like a hedgehog, like a double-edged razor, beret, like a rattlesnake at 20, he stung a two-meter-tall snake” (V. Mayakovsky).
Conclusion
trope epithet metaphor parallelism
After writing this abstract, we became convinced that tropes and stylistic figures are important expressive means of the Russian language. When we talk about expressiveness, we first of all mean emotional coloring and variety of speech. Moreover, tropes achieve this diversity with the help of semantic rather than syntactic accents, while stylistic figures are exclusively syntactic constructions.
Tropes are individual words and phrases used in a literal sense, as well as words and expressions used in a figurative sense, and stylistic figures are unusual syntactic phrases that violate linguistic norms and are used to decorate speech. Among the main tropes, it is customary to highlight epithets and comparisons, as well as metaphor, metonymy and irony. The main stylistic figures are anaphora, epiphora, ring, parallelism, gradation, ellipsis, inversion, etc.
All these means of expressiveness are used not only individually, but also in combination, for example, parallelism, as a stylistic figure, can often include symbols, as part of a trope, metaphors, and anacoluth often contains irony. That is, stylistic figures seem to contain tropes and include their semantic accents in their syntactic construction.
The role of tropes and stylistic figures is most clearly revealed in poetry, where they not only decorate the text and enhance its psychological impact on the reader, but can also form the compositional basis of the work. However, they are not alien means of expression language and prose, which is confirmed by many examples classical literature.
For the modern Russian language, the importance of tropes and stylistic figures also remains high.
List of used literature
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