Geography. A complete guide to preparing for the Unified State Exam. Geography reference books

V. V. Barabanov, S. E. Dyukova, O. V. Chicherina

GEOGRAPHY Complete guide to prepare for the Unified State Exam

In accordance with the law on the United state exam(Unified State Exam), since 2009, the Unified State Exam has become the main form of competitive selection for admission to higher education institutions.

Every year, tens of thousands of graduates successfully pass the geography exam and become students of higher educational institutions.

Unfortunately, the curriculum of graduating classes of the vast majority of schools does not include the subject “Geography,” which makes it much more difficult for graduates to prepare for the final certification exam.

This manual will help graduate students independently repeat and systematize the material of the school geography course, become familiar with the structure of Unified State Examination tasks and independently solve standard practice tests.

The theoretical material of the reference book is presented in a concise and accessible form. Each section of the book corresponds to topics tested on the Unified State Exam - seven content blocks: “Sources of geographical information”, “Nature of the Earth”, “World population”, “ World economy", "Nature management and ecology", "Country studies", "Geography of Russia", and is accompanied by examples test tasks with comments and self-tests. Self-execution test tasks will help not only to consolidate knowledge in memory, but also to practice the basic techniques for completing Unified State Exam tasks. Answers to the tasks will allow you to test your knowledge and assess the degree of preparedness for the certification exam.

The manual is addressed to high school students, applicants and teachers.

Geographic Information Sources

Comparison of properties geographical map and site plan. Area plan. Geographic map

Map– a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or the celestial sphere, constructed in scale and projection (i.e. according to a mathematical law).

Maps differ in scale. Depending on the scale, maps are divided into three groups: large-scale, medium-scale, and small-scale. Large scale maps have a scale of 1:200,000 and larger. This group includes topographic maps. Medium-scale ones have a scale smaller than 1:2,000,000 and up to 1:1,000,000 inclusive. Small-scale maps include maps built on a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000.

When creating a map, a strict selection is made of what will be depicted and written on it. This selection is called cartographic generalization. As a rule, the smaller the scale of the map, the fewer objects are shown on it, i.e., the stricter its generalization. An important role in cartographic generalization is played by the purpose of the map and its subject matter.

Site plan– a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger). The construction of plans is carried out during visual, instrumental or combined surveys directly on the ground or on the basis of deciphering aerial photographs. The plans reflect a small area (several kilometers), and therefore, when constructing them, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account.

The difference between a plan and a map: 1) plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Maps show much larger territories, their scale is smaller;

2) the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the depicted objects, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, unlike the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;

3) when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken into account, since it is depicted small area terrain. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain map projections;

4) there is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;

5) on the plan, the direction to the north is considered to be up, the direction to the south is down, to the west is left, to the east is to the right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.

Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on maps

Conventional signs– designations used on maps to depict various objects and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Conventional signs are used to denote both real objects (for example, settlements) and abstract ones (for example, population density). Conventional signs are intended to indicate the type and some characteristics of objects (phenomena) depicted on the map and determine their position in space.

Conventional signs are: – non-scale(used to depict objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale). Are these drawings or geometric shapes, Springs whose shape usually resembles the depicted object (Fig. 1). Letter symbols also refer to non-scale symbols - linear(used to depict linear objects - rivers, roads, borders, pipelines, etc.). To scale, they convey only the length and shape of the object; their width is exaggerated, so it cannot be measured (Fig. 2);

– areal, or contour(used to depict geographical objects that occupy a certain area - a lake, a forest, etc.). The actual size of objects is transmitted (Fig. 3).

They consist of an outline (forests, swamps, etc.) and its filling (color, shading).

Explanatory symbols (for example, arrows showing the direction of river flow, figures of deciduous and coniferous trees etc.), signatures, letters and numbers also carry certain information on the card.

On large-scale maps, area and linear symbols are more often used, on small-scale maps, off-scale symbols are used.

Cartographic methods of representation

A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth’s surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that areas on the map that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) (for example, natural zones) are identified and painted over (or shaded) in colors selected for them (shading).

Method of habitats. Area– the area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).

Isoline method. Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps passing through points with the same value any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth’s surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values ​​of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., isolines are drawn.

Movement lines. Lines (arrows) show the direction of movement of any objects - air masses, winds, ocean currents, rivers, etc. Determining directions, measuring distances on a plan and map

On the plan, north - south is shown by an arrow. If there is no arrow on the plan, then it is considered that north is at the top, south is at the bottom.

On the map, directions are determined using a degree network. The direction north - south corresponds to the direction of the meridians, west - east - to the parallels.

Azimuth measurements on maps are made using a protractor. Azimuth is the angle formed at a given point or on a map between the direction north and any object and measured clockwise.

From authors 6
Section I. SOURCES OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan.
Area plan. Geographic map 7
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on geographic maps 8
Cartographic image methods 9
Determination of directions,
measuring distances on plans and maps 10
Definition geographical coordinates 11
Determining distances on a map 13
Definition of zone and zone time 15
Use of statistical materials to determine trends in the development of geographical processes and phenomena 16
Constructing a relief profile from a map 16
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 18
Self-test tasks 25
Section II. NATURE OF THE EARTH
Earth as a planet solar system 28
Geographical envelope 34
Lithosphere 36
Hydrosphere 46
Atmosphere 57
Biosphere 76
Soil as a special natural formation 76
Natural complex (landscape), natural zone, latitudinal and altitudinal zones 77
Continents as the largest natural complexes 82
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 106
Self-test tasks 120
Section III. WORLD POPULATION
Population size and reproduction 124
Age composition of the world population 127
Level and quality of life of the population 127
Location and population density 129
Migrations. Main directions and types of migrations 130
Urban and rural population. Urbanization 130
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 132
Self-test tasks 137
Section IV. WORLD ECONOMY
Structure of the world economy.
International geographical division of labor 140
Geography of the main international
economic organizations 144
Geography of the world's main industries 144
Geography agriculture 152
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 159
Self-test tasks 163
Section V. NATURE MANAGEMENT AND ECOLOGY
Main types of natural resources.
Resource availability 166
Influence economic activity people on the environment.
Security measures environment. Rational and irrational environmental management 169
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 175
Self-test tasks 181
Section VI. POLITICAL MAP OF THE WORLD. DIVERSITY OF THE WORLD'S COUNTRIES
Political map of the world.
Diversity of countries of the world.
Developed and developing countries 184
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 196
Self-test tasks 200
Section VII. GEOGRAPHY OF RUSSIA
Geographical location. Territory and borders. Federal structure Russian Federation 204
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 205
Self-test tasks 207
Nature of Russia 209
Natural areas. Forest and soil and land resources 215
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 218
Self-test tasks 222
Population of Russia 224
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 228
Self-test tasks 232
Russian economy 234
Examples of typical Unified State Exam tasks with comments 249
Self-test tasks 253
Regions of Russia 256
Examples of typical Unified State Examination tasks with comments 272
Self-test tasks 274
Answers to self-test tasks 278
Appendix 284

Cartographic methods of representation.
A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth's surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that areas on the map that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) (for example, natural zones) are identified and painted over (or shaded) in colors selected for them (shading).

Method of habitats. Habitat is the area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).

Isoline method. Isolines (from the Greek isos - equal) are lines on geographical maps that pass through points with the same value of any quantitative indicator (temperature, precipitation, depth, height, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth’s surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values ​​of a certain indicator are connected by thin lines, i.e., isolines are drawn.

CONTENT
From the Authors
Section I. Sources of Geographic Information
Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan. Area plan. Geographic map
Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on maps
Cartographic methods of representation
Determination of geographical coordinates
Finding distances on a map
Definition of standard time
Building a relief profile from a map
Outstanding Geographical Exploration, Discovery and Travel

Self-test tasks
Section II. Nature of the Earth
Earth as a planet in the solar system
Geographical envelope
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Soil as a special natural formation
Natural complex (landscape), natural zone, latitudinal and altitudinal zones
Continents and oceans as the largest natural complexes
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section III. World Population
Population size and reproduction
Age and sex composition of the world population. Ethnogeography
Geography of world religions
Population migrations and their impact on population changes
Location and population density
Urban and rural population. Urbanization. Largest cities and urban agglomerations
Level and quality of life of the population largest countries and regions of the world
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section IV. World Economy
The main stages of the formation of the world economy
International geographical division of labor
Geography of the main international economic and political organizations
Geography of the main industries of the world
Geography of the main branches of agriculture in the world
Geography of world transport
Geography of world trade and tourism
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section V. Nature Management and Ecology
Main types of natural resources
Placement of natural resources
Rational and irrational environmental management
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section VI. Regional studies
Modern political map peace
Main types of countries in the modern world
Regions and countries
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Section VII. Geography of Russia
Geographical location. Territory and borders. Federal structure of the Russian Federation
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Nature of Russia
Relief
Geological Structure and Minerals
Climate
Inland waters
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Population of Russia
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Economy of Russia
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks
Regions of Russia
Examples of Unified State Examination Tasks with Comments
Self-test tasks.

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Geography is one of the natural sciences that studies the structure of the Earth, the peculiarities of the formation of various objects, laws and patterns throughout history, one way or another influencing the planet. The subject of study is quite broad, so in the school course it is conventionally divided into physical and economic parts, which are closely interconnected.
The main objective of the school course is to develop in children a comprehensive understanding of the world, taking into account the knowledge acquired in other lessons. Here the abstract and logical thinking, necessary for building cause-and-effect relationships and understanding the processes occurring in the world.
The foundations of the discipline were laid by the Hellenes, whose knowledge was generalized in the 1st century AD. e.; For centuries this science has been closely linked with cartography. This branch of knowledge developed as humanity developed other sciences that made it possible to conquer large spaces and learn about the existence of new continents and peoples living on them.
Today in schools they begin to study the subject in the 5th grade as a separate discipline. The basis for this subject is the lessons “The World Around Us”, which are included in the standard primary school curriculum.
5th grade
The study begins with an introduction to the formation of the Earth, which required numerous processes. Basics of astronomy, basic knowledge about space and the laws operating in it open this subject and lead schoolchildren to a more detailed study of the structure of the planet.
In the fifth grade, the foundations of cartography are laid, the concepts of maps and coordinates are introduced, and the principles and methods of terrain orientation are studied. Along with getting to know the structure of the planet, children get acquainted with a short history the emergence of humanity and the factors that influenced its evolution.
6th grade
After a general introduction to the discipline, schoolchildren become familiar with the concepts of the spheres of the Earth and study each of them in detail. The knowledge gained allows us to see the interconnection of geographical components, as well as their influence on each other.
In the sixth grade, children study in detail the processes taking place in earth's crust, the world's oceans and atmosphere. This allows you to form a comprehensive vision of the planet and teaches you to evaluate the impact of some geographical factors on others in different aspects.
7th grade
In the seventh grade, during lessons, children study in detail the features of the continents and the countries located on them. The curriculum is divided into groups of topics that allow you to study a particular continent from different angles - relief, climate, their influence on the lifestyle of the population and the economy of states.
8th grade
In this academic year schoolchildren begin to examine in more detail physical geography Russia. The eighth grade course includes familiarization with the peculiarities of the location, relief and climate of the country, conditional division into geographical zones and studying the characteristics of each of them.
In 9th grade it is studied economic geography Russia - similar and different features different regions, the influence of climate and other factors on the regional economy. The focus here is on communication natural conditions, minerals and other resources with economic development, manufacturing and agriculture.
10–11 grades
The entire course is reviewed in the high school curriculum. school course, starting from the formation of the earth, climate, relief and processes important for their formation. The main attention is paid to the economic component of science using examples of various states and ways of their development.