When we talk about art and literary creativity, we are focused on the impressions that are created when reading. They are largely determined by the imagery of the work. In fiction and poetry, there are special techniques for enhancing expressiveness. Competent presentation public speaking– they also need ways to build expressive speech.

For the first time, the concept of rhetorical figures, figures of speech, appeared among speakers ancient Greece. In particular, Aristotle and his followers were involved in their study and classification. Delving into the details, scientists have identified up to 200 varieties that enrich the language.

Means of expressive speech are divided into language level to:

phonetic;
lexical;
syntactic.

The use of phonetics is traditional for poetry. Musical sounds often predominate in a poem, giving poetic speech a special melodious quality. In the drawing of a verse, stress, rhythm and rhyme, and combinations of sounds are used for emphasis.

Anaphora– repetition of sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. “The golden stars dozed off...” - repetition of the initial sounds, Yesenin used phonetic anaphora.

And here is an example of lexical anaphora in Pushkin’s poems:

Alone you rush across the clear azure,
You alone cast a dull shadow,
You alone sadden the jubilant day.

Epiphora- a similar technique, but much less common, in which words or phrases are repeated at the end of lines or sentences.

The use of lexical devices associated with a word, lexeme, as well as phrases and sentences, syntax, is considered as a tradition of literary creativity, although it is also widely found in poetry.

Conventionally, all means of expressiveness of the Russian language can be divided into tropes and stylistic figures.

Trails

Tropes are the use of words and phrases in a figurative sense. Paths make speech more figurative, enliven and enrich it. Some tropes and their examples in literary work are listed below.

Epithet- artistic definition. Using it, the author gives the word additional emotional overtones and his own assessment. To understand how an epithet differs from an ordinary definition, you need to understand when reading whether the definition gives a new connotation to the word? Here's a simple test. Compare: late autumn– golden autumn, early spring – young spring, quiet breeze – gentle breeze.

Personification- transferring the signs of living beings to inanimate objects, nature: “The gloomy rocks looked sternly...”.

Comparison– direct comparison of one object or phenomenon with another. “The night is gloomy, like a beast...” (Tyutchev).

Metaphor– transferring the meaning of one word, object, phenomenon to another. Identifying similarities, implicit comparison.

“There is a red rowan fire burning in the garden...” (Yesenin). The rowan brushes remind the poet of the flame of a fire.

Metonymy– renaming. Transferring a property or meaning from one object to another according to the principle of contiguity. “The one in felt, let’s argue” (Vysotsky). In felt (material) - in a felt hat.

Synecdoche- a type of metonymy. Transferring the meaning of one word to another based on a quantitative connection: singular - plural, part - whole. “We all look at Napoleons” (Pushkin).

Irony- the use of a word or expression in an inverted, mocking sense. For example, the appeal to the Donkey in Krylov’s fable: “Are you crazy, smart one?”

Hyperbola- a figurative expression containing exorbitant exaggeration. It may relate to size, meaning, strength, and other qualities. Litota is, on the contrary, an exorbitant understatement. Hyperbole is often used by writers and journalists, and litotes is much less common. Examples. Hyperbole: “The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns” (V.V. Mayakovsky). Litota: “a little man with a fingernail.”

Allegory- a specific image, scene, image, object that visually represents an abstract idea. The role of allegory is to suggest subtext, to force one to look for hidden meaning when reading. Widely used in fable.

Alogism– deliberate violation of logical connections for the purpose of irony. “That landowner was stupid, he read the newspaper “Vest” and his body was soft, white and crumbly.” (Saltykov-Shchedrin). The author deliberately mixes logically heterogeneous concepts in the enumeration.

Grotesque– a special technique, a combination of hyperbole and metaphor, a fantastic surreal description. An outstanding master of Russian grotesque was N. Gogol. His story “The Nose” is based on the use of this technique. A special impression when reading this work is made by the combination of the absurd with the ordinary.

Figures of speech

Stylistic figures are also used in literature. Their main types are shown in the table:

What is a means of expressive speech? Fine and expressive means of language: list with name and description, examples

Means of expression in the Russian language can be divided into:

Lexical means
Syntactic means
Phonetic means

Lexical means: tropes

Allegory - Themis (woman with scales) – justice.	Replacing an abstract concept with a concrete image.
Hyperbole -Bloomers as wide as the Black Sea(N. Gogol)	Artistic exaggeration.
Irony - Where, smart, your head is delirious. (Fable by I. Krylov).	Subtle mockery, used in the opposite sense to the direct one.
Lexical repetition - Lakes all around, deep lakes.	Repetition of the same word or phrase in the text
Litota -A man with a fingernail.	Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon.
Metaphor - Sleepy Lake of the City (A. Blok)	The figurative meaning of the word based on similarity
Metonymy - The class was noisy	Replacing one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts
Occasionalisms -The fruits of education.	Artistic media, formed by the author.
Personification -It's raining. Nature rejoices.	The endowment of inanimate objects with the properties of living things.
Periphrase -Lion = king of beasts.	Substituting words with similar ones lexical meaning expression.
Sarcasm -The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm.	A caustic, subtle mockery, the highest form of irony.
Comparison -Says a word - the nightingale sings.	In comparison there is also what is being compared, and then what is it compared to?. Conjunctions are often used: as if, as if.
Synecdoche -Every a penny* brings (money) into the house.*	Transferring values by quantitative characteristic.
Epithet -“Ruddy dawn”, “Golden hands”, “Silver voice”.	A colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison.

Synonyms -1) run - rush. 2)The noise (rustle) of leaves.	1) Words that are different in spelling, but close in meaning. 2) Contextual synonyms - words that are similar in meaning in the same context
Antonyms - original - fake, stale - responsive	Words with opposite meanings
Archaism -eyes - eyes, cheeks - cheeks	Obsolete word or figure of speech

Syntactic means

Anaphora -It was not in vain that the storm came.	Repeating words or combinations of words at the beginning of sentences or lines of poetry.
Antithesis -Long hair, short mind;.	Opposition.
Gradation -I came, I saw, I conquered!	Arrangement of words and expressions in increasing (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance.
Inversion -Once upon a time there lived a grandfather and a woman.	Reverse order words
Compositional junction (lexical repetition) -It was a wonderful sound. It was the best voice I've heard in years.	Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words from the previous sentence, usually ending it.
Multi-union -The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded away.	Intentional use of a repeated conjunction.
Oxymoron -Dead souls.	A combination of words that are not compatible in meaning.
Parcellation -He saw me and froze. I was surprised. He fell silent.	The deliberate division of a sentence into meaningful segments.
Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal -What a summer, what a summer! Who hasn’t cursed the stationmasters, who hasn’t sworn at them? Citizens, let's make our city green and cozy!	Expressing a statement in interrogative form; attracting attention; increased emotional impact.
Rows, pairwise combination of homogeneous members -Nature helps to fight loneliness, overcome despair, powerlessness, forget hostility, envy, and the treachery of friends.	Using homogeneous members for greater artistic expressiveness of the text
Syntactic parallelism -To be able to speak is an art. Listening is a culture.(D. Likhachev)	Similar, parallel construction of phrases and lines.
Default -But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, / I was born near the Caucasus.	The author deliberately understates something, interrupts the hero’s thoughts so that the reader can think for himself what he wanted to say.
Ellipsis -Guys - for the axes! (the word “taken” is missing)	Omission of some part of the sentence that is easily restored from the context
Epiphora -I've been coming to you all my life. I believed in you all my life.	Same ending for several sentences.

Phonetic means: sound writing

Solve the Unified State Exam in Russian with answers.

Means of expression are special artistic and rhetorical techniques, lexical and grammatical means language that attracts attention to the utterance. They are used to give speech expression, emotionality, clarity, and make it more interesting and convincing. Means of expression have long been considered as an important component rhetorical canon(see Chapter 4).

The means of expression are trails And figures.

Trails- these are figures of speech based on the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning (epithet, comparison, metaphor, etc.). Figures of speech, or rhetorical figures, are special forms of syntactic constructions with the help of which the expressiveness of speech and the degree of its impact on the addressee are enhanced (repetition, antithesis, rhetorical question, etc.). Tropes are based on verbal imagery, while figures are based on syntactic imagery.

There are several main types of tropes.

I. Comparison- a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three components: firstly, that which is compared, secondly, that with which it is compared, and thirdly, that on the basis of which one is compared with another. As an example, we can cite the statement of the famous physiologist I. P. Pavlov: “Like the perfect wing of a bird, it could never lift it up without relying on the air. Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to fly. Without your “theories” are empty attempts.”

II. Epithet - an artistic definition that makes it possible to more vividly characterize the qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enriches the content of the statement. For example, geologist A.E. Fersman uses epithets to describe precious stones: a brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green; bright golden “peridot” of the Urals, a beautiful sparkling demantoid stone; a whole range of tones connects weakly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines.

III. Metaphor - this is the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena (in shape, color, function, etc.): " golden autumn", "dead silence", "iron will", "sea of flowers". Metaphor is also called a figurative designation in artistic, poetic speech or in journalism of any object or phenomenon based on its similarity with another object or phenomenon: sharks of capitalism, political games, score points, nationalist card, paralysis of power, dollar injection Metaphor should be distinguished from comparison, which is usually formalized using the conjunctions “as,” “as if,” “as if,” or can be expressed by a form. instrumental case noun. A successful metaphor activates perception and is well remembered:

The dome of the museum rises two steps away, below boils[Zanlavskaya Square - I made a rather large circle (L. Kabakov. Everything can be fixed).

“And in general,” said Perkhushkov, choking with melancholy, “how scary and difficult it is to live in the world, friends! What dramas, collisions, hurricanes, storms, tornadoes, cyclones, anticyclones, typhoons, punami, mistrals, barguzins, khamsins and boreas, not speaking of longenfengs, they happen at every step in our spiritual life!” (T. Tolstaya. Limpopo).

The Shcherbinsky case became the “uranium rod” that, being lowered into our Russian political reactor, will start the process of fission of the civilian nucleus (“Results”. 2006. M 13).

In literary and journalistic texts, an extended metaphor can be used, which is based on several associations of similarity:

The ship of your health has run aground. It needs to be towed, refloated, and then, when there is free water under its keel, it will float on its own. Medicines are a tug, free water is time, and the ability to swim on your own is restored adaptive capabilities (advertising).

Metaphors play a significant role in shaping the picture of the world. The famous researcher of political rhetoric A.P. Chudinov proceeds from the fact that the system of metaphors is a kind of key to understanding the spirit of the times. He explored the following basic metaphors of modern Russian reality: criminal ("political showdowns"), militaristic ("opposition camp", "show a united front"), medical ("paralysis of power", "separatism syndrome"), gaming ("nationalist card" , "gain points"), sports ("come to the finish line", "pick up speed").

The idea that the type of politician can be determined by the nature of his speech behavior, in particular by the metaphorical models that he chooses, has become firmly established in the public consciousness. For example, the persistence of the militaristic model “Russia is a military camp” is explained by the fact that numerous wars have influenced all generations of Russians. This model provokes the verbal deployment of the scenario “War and all its varieties”: informational, psychological warfare, election campaign, ideological, pre-election front, go on the offensive, all-round defense, smoke screen, take revenge, state of siege, economic blockade, ordinary party soldiers. The militaristic metaphor is dangerous because it simplifies reality, imposing alternatives: either enemy - or friend, or black - or white.

IV. Metonymy based on contiguity. If, when creating a metaphor, two objects, phenomena, actions must be somewhat similar to each other, then with metonymy, two objects or phenomena that receive the same name must be adjacent, closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the names of capitals to mean “government of the country”, the words “audience”, “class”, “school”, “apartment”, “house”, “factory”, “collective farm” to designate people, naming a product made of material as the same as the material itself (gold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay), for example: Moscow is preparing a return visit; London has not yet made a final decision; Negotiations between Moscow and Washington; Five houses in our area have changed management companies; Our athletes received gold and silver, bronze went to the French.

V. Paraphrase - replacing a word with a descriptive expression that allows you to characterize any features of what is being said. Often the basis of periphrases is metaphorical transfer. Paraphrases are often found in means mass media. Successful, fresh paraphrases help to enliven speech, help avoid repetition, and enhance emotional assessment: an earthquake is an “underground storm,” a forest is “green wealth,” a forest (forests) are “the lungs of the planet,” journalists are “the fourth estate,” AIDS is “ plague of the 20th century.", chess - "gymnastics of the mind", Sweden - "land of the Vikings", St. Petersburg - "Venice of the North", Japan - "land of the rising sun".

VI. Hyperbole - this is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, phenomenon, object or its properties; it is used to enhance the artistic impression, emotional impact (“He rushed faster than lightning”; “The berries this year grew as big as a fist”; “He is so thin, like a skeleton”). Due to the hyperbole, the subject of the speech appears exceptional, often incredible: “From the Urals to the Danube, to the big river, swaying and sparkling, the regiments are moving” (M. Lermontov). Hyperbole is actively used both in commercial advertising to exaggerate the functional qualities and aesthetic properties of goods and services (“Bounty is a heavenly delight”), and in propaganda (“fateful decisions”, “the only guarantor of the Constitution”, “evil empire”).

VII. Litota - a trope that is the opposite of hyperbole and consists of a deliberate weakening, downplaying of the property or attribute that is being spoken about (“a little guy”, “two steps from here”, “wait a second”).

VIII. Irony - using a name or even an entire statement in the opposite of its literal sense, deliberately stating the opposite of what the speaker actually thinks. Highest degree manifestations of irony - sarcasm. Irony is usually revealed not formally, but on the basis of background knowledge or context (“Listen to this intellectual: now he will dot all the i’s” - about a poorly educated, narrow-minded person; “Well, how could this man of honor break the law” - about a swindler).

IX. Among the rhetorical figures stands out repeat, intended primarily for demonstration strong feeling. Often this is simply a repetition of a certain word. Here is an example of using the repetition technique in a speech by D. S. Likhachev:

Russian culture, simply because it includes the cultures of a dozen other peoples and has long been associated with the neighboring cultures of Scandinavia, Byzantium, the southern and western Slavs, Germany, Italy, the peoples of the East and the Caucasus, is a universal culture and tolerant of the cultures of others peoples This last feature was clearly characterized by Dostoevsky in his famous speech at the Pushkin celebrations. But Russian culture is also European because it has always been, at its deepest core, devoted to the idea of personal freedom... ("O

There are several types of repetition.

1. Anaphora - repetition of words at the beginning of adjacent segments of speech. For example: “give yourself the unique grace of French makeup, give yourself a piece of French charm.” The famous speech of Martin Luther King, a fighter for the rights of the black population in the United States, is built on the anaphora “I have a dream.” Another example of anaphora is a fragment of an article by the famous poet V. I. Ivanov “Thoughts on Symbolism”:

So, I am not a symbolist if I do not, with an elusive hint or influence in the listener’s heart, evoke indescribable sensations, sometimes similar to an initial memory... sometimes like a distant, vague premonition, sometimes like the thrill of someone’s familiar and desired approach...

I am not a symbolist...if my words do not directly convince him of the existence of hidden life where his mind did not suspect life; if my words do not move in him the energy of love for that which until then he did not know how to love, because his love did not know how many abodes it has.

I am not a symbolist, if my words are equal...

2. Epiphora - This is the repetition of words at the ends of adjacent segments of speech. As an example, we can cite a fragment of the speech of American President F. D. Roosevelt “On Four Freedoms”:

In the future... we will see a world built on the basis of the four inalienable freedoms of man. The first of these is freedom of speech anywhere in the world. The second is freedom of religious cultures everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want, which... means mutual understanding in the sphere of economic relations, ensuring for each state a peaceful, prosperous life for its citizens everywhere in the world. The fourth freedom is freedom from fear, which... means the reduction of armaments throughout the world to such an extent that no state will be able to commit an act of aggression against any of its neighbors anywhere in the world.

3. Joint - This is the repetition of words on the boundaries of adjacent segments within a sentence or on the border of sentences. For example: “Only here, here and nowhere else”; "This cannot but be called a crime. Other actions of the authorities should also be called a crime."
4. Syntactic parallelism - This is a repetition of the same type of syntactic units in the same type of syntactic positions. Let us give an example of the use of this figure by Academician D. S. Likhachev:

Let us have heroes of the spirit, ascetics who give themselves to serve the sick, children, the poor, other nations, saints, finally. Let our country again be the birthplace of Oriental studies, the country of “small nations”, their preservation in the “Red Book of Humanity”. Let the unconscious desire to devote oneself entirely to some holy cause, which has so distinguished Russians at all times, again take its rightful place (“O national character of Russians").

Syntactic parallelism is also used in advertising: Children build for fun, you build for them.

Syntactic parallelism may be accompanied by an antithesis: “A strong governor - great rights, a weak governor - no rights; a public politician - the republic is known in the country, a non-public politician - no one knows about it.”

X. Antithesis - a figure based on the opposition of compared concepts, for example in proverbs and sayings: “A smart person will teach you, a fool will get bored”; "It's easy to make friends, hard to be separated." The antithesis was used by Cicero in his famous speech against Senator Catiline:

A sense of honor fights on our side, arrogance on the other side; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deception; here - valor, there - crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - a shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, all virtues fight injustice, corruption, laziness, recklessness, all kinds of vices; finally, abundance battles poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, and finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.

XI. Inversion - rearranging parts of a sentence, breaking the usual word order to emphasize certain words. This is often associated with cases where the predicate comes before the subject in order to highlight new information in the sentence. For example: “Spring evenings are nice”; “History is made by people, and not by some objective laws of history”; “We honored the hero of the day with the whole team”; “No matter how difficult it is, we must do it.” Inversion can also be used for stylization: “We sit at long, oak, uncovered tables. The servants serve rusk kvass, daily cabbage soup, rye bread, boiled beef with onions and buckwheat porridge.” (V. Sorokin. Day of the Oprichnik).

XII. Parcellation - this is the division of the original utterance into two or more independent, intonationally isolated segments, for example: “They know. They remember. They believe”; “A person was always beautiful if his name sounded proud. When he was a fighter. When he was a discoverer. When he was daring. When he did not give in to difficulties and did not fall to his knees in the face of trouble”; "He went too. To the store. To buy apples."

Parcelation usually serves to convey the features of living things in written text. oral speech and is actively used in fiction and journalism: “But she didn’t get sick. She lied. But there are lies, and there are lies. And only a strong opponent should lie, and then a lie is an event. You can lie and die. Or kill. lies, nothing changes in you. Neither decreases nor increases..." (A. Gosteva. Daughter of a samurai).

Parcelation is impossible in official business and scientific speech.

XIII. Rhetorical question- a question-exclamation that does not require an answer, but conveys a message about something: “Do you think that I don’t know this?”; “Is there another city like ours!”; “What does this mean?... The famous reformer, the “architect of reforms,” could not do anything against the adoption of the law. How can we trust such a country now?

D. S. Likhachev uses a whole complex of rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical questions in his speech “On the National Character of Russians”:

There was legislation, "Russian Truth". “Code of Law”, “Code”, which defended the character and dignity of the individual. Is this not enough? Is it not enough for us to have a popular movement to the East in search of freedom from the state and a happy Belovodsk kingdom? ...Do not constant riots and such leaders of these riots as Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev and many others testify to the ineradicable desire for personal freedom? And the northern fires, in which hundreds and thousands of people burned themselves in the name of loyalty to their beliefs! What other uprising can we contrast with the Decembrist one, in which the leaders of the uprising acted against their property, estate and class interests, but in the name of social and political justice? And the village gatherings, which the authorities were constantly forced to reckon with! And all Russian literature, which has strived for social justice for a thousand years!

Traditional means of expression that have been perfected over centuries are still today the most important means creating effective, impactful speech, but only skillful, proportionate and appropriate use of them will avoid artificiality and false pathos.

Epithet(Greek - attached, added) - this is a figurative definition that has special artistic expressiveness, conveying the author’s feeling for the depicted object, creating a living idea of the object.

As a rule, an epithet is expressed by an adjective used in a figurative meaning. From this point of view, for example, the adjectives blue, gray, blue in combination with the word sky cannot be called epithets, such as the adjectives lead, steel, amber.

Not every definition can be called an epithet (cf. iron bed and iron character, silver spoon and silver key (meaning “spring”)). Only in the phrases iron character and silver key do we have epithets that carry a semantic and expressive-emotional load in the statement.

Rare (individually authored) epithets are found in literary texts. They are based on unexpected, often unique semantic associations: Marmeladova's mood (L. Chekhov), cardboard love (N. Gogol), colorful joy (V. Shukshin).

Comparison - a pictorial technique based on a comparison of a phenomenon or

concepts with another phenomenon. Most often, comparison is formalized in speech and in the form of comparative phrases. With this syntactic construction objects, actions, signs are compared. Consists of comparative turnover from a word or phrase with one of the comparative conjunctions (as, exactly, as if, as if, as if, that): Brevity, like pearls, sparkles content (L. Tolstoy). Wide shadows walk across the plain, like clouds across the sky (A. Chekhov). Our river, like in a fairy tale, was paved with frost overnight (S. Marshak)

Expressiveness of speech is also given by complex sentences with a comparative clause, which is attached to the main part using the same comparative conjunctions as, exactly, as if, as if, as if, as if : I suddenly felt good in my soul, as if my childhood had returned (M. Gorky).

Comparison is also conveyed by other linguistic means, for example, by combining a verb with a noun in the instrumental case: Joy crawls like a snail (= crawls like a snail), Joy sang in her chest like a bird (= sang like a bird) (M Gorky), The chains of mountains stand like giants (I. Nikitin), Sometimes time flies like a bird, sometimes it crawls like a worm. (I. Turgenev)

In addition, comparison is conveyed by the combination comparative form adjective and noun: Under it is a stream of lighter azure (M. Lermontov), Truth is more valuable than gold. (Proverb)

Metaphor –(Greek - transference) is a transference of the meaning of a word, based on the likening of one object or phenomenon to another by similarity or contrast: Nails would be made from these people: There would be no stronger nails in the world. (N. Tikhonov)

This means of expression is very close to comparison. Sometimes a metaphor is called a hidden comparison, since it is based on a comparison, but it is not formalized using comparative conjunctions : sleepy lake of the city (A. Blok), a soaring tambourine of a blizzard (A. Blok), dry leaves of my words (V. Mayakovsky), a fire of red rowan (S. Yesenin).

Personification- an artistic technique that consists in the fact that when describing animals or inanimate objects, they are endowed with human feelings, thoughts, speech : The moon laughed like a clown (S. Yesenin), Everything around was tired: the color of the sky, the wind, the river, and the month that was born were tired (A. Fet), Midnight enters my city window with night gifts (A Tvardovsky ).

Hyperbola(Greek - exaggeration) - a pictorial technique built on a quantitative exaggeration of the characteristics of an object, phenomenon, action, in other words, this is an artistic exaggeration: It will pass - as if it will illuminate the sun! If he looks, he’ll give you a ruble! I saw how she mows: with a wave, the mop is ready. (N. Nekrasov)

Litotes(Greek – simplicity) – in contrast to hyperbole, artistic understatement: Tom Thumb; waist is no thinner than a bottle neck (N. Gogol)

Antithesis(Greek - opposition) - ego technique of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. As a rule, the antithesis is based on the use of antonyms: They came together: wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire. (A. Pushkin)) You are poor, you are abundant, you are powerful, you are powerless, Mother Rus'!(N Nekrasov)

Alliteration – one of the types of sound writing, based on the repetition of identical consonant sounds in poetic speech (less often in prose): The echo roars across the mountains, Like thunder thundering over thunder. (Derzhavin “Waterfall”)

Assonance(Latin – to sound in harmony) – repetition of identical vowel sounds in poetic speech: I will put it in a tight bowstring, I will bend the obedient bow into an arc, and then I will send it at random, and woe to our enemy. (A. Pushkin)

Allegory – depiction of an abstract concept or phenomenon through a concrete image (heart is an allegory of love). In fables, certain individuals or social phenomena are allegorically depicted under the guise of animals.

Metonymy(Greek - rename) - a phenomenon or object is designated using other words or concepts, while the signs or connections that bring these phenomena or concepts together are preserved: Mayakovsky about the revolver - “a steel orator dozing in a holster”

Gradation(lat - gradual elevation) - arrangement of words and expressions in increasing or decreasing importance: Huge blue eyes glowed, burned, shone.(V. Soloukhin) I called you, but you didn’t look back, I shed tears, but you didn’t condescend.(A. Blok)

Inversion(Latin - permutation) - a violation of the sequence of speech, giving the phrase a new expressive shade: He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps. (A. Pushkin)

Chiasmus(Greek - cruciform) - a peculiar construction of a sentence, when in the first half the words are arranged in one sequence, and in the second - in the reverse order (inversion): Despite reason, despite the elements (A. Griboyedov)

Pun(French - play on words) - humorous use of the polysemy of a word ( Nozdryov was in some way historical person. Not a single meeting where he was present was complete without a story... (N. Gogol), homonyms or sound similarity of words ( The defender of liberty and rights is wrong in this case. (A. Pushkin) But who will explain to me why all these cattle, all these hari-stocrats were brought on earth..? (R. Roland)

Oxymoron, or oxymoron (Greek - witty-stupid), - a combination of words with opposite meanings: optimistic tragedy (V. Vishnevsky). Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness.(M. Lermontov) But I soon comprehended the mystery of their ugly beauty(M. Lermontov) Live, keeping the joy of grief, remembering the joy of past springs.. (V. Bryusov) // the impossible is possible, the long road is easy. (A. Block) From hateful love, from crimes, from frenzy, righteous Rus' will arise.(M. Voloshin)

Syntactic parallelism(Greek - running alongside, parallel) - a technique consisting in a similar construction of adjacent sentences of prose text of poetic lines or stanzas: A diamond is polished with a diamond. String dictated by string

Lexical repetition- deliberate repetition of the same word in the text. As a rule, using this technique, a key word is highlighted in the text, the meaning of which you need to draw the reader’s attention to: The winds did not blow in vain, the storm did not come in vain. (WITH. Yesenin)
Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal(Greek - oratory) - special techniques that are used to enhance the expressiveness of speech.

Rhetorical question can express interrogative content, but is asked not with the goal of giving or receiving an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader.

Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of feelings in the text.

Rhetorical appeal directed not to the real interlocutor, but to the subject of artistic depiction. Dreams, .dreams! Where is your sweetness! (A. Pushkin) Familiar clouds! How do you live? Who are you going to threaten now?(M. Svetlov)

The following can also act as figurative and expressive means: syntactic structures like homogeneous members offers(sentences with several rows of homogeneous words are often used

Sonorant sounds – m, l, n, r, th

Repeat	At the beginning, end, at the junction of sentences	This cry and strings, These flocks, these birds
Antithesis	Opposition. Antonyms are often used.	Long hair, short mind
Gradation	Arrangement of synonyms in increasing or decreasing order	Smolder, burn, glow, explode
Oxymoron	Connecting contradictions	A living corpse, an honest thief.
Inversion	Word order changes	He came late (He came late).
Parallelism	Comparison in the form of juxtaposition	The wind stirred the dark branches. Fear stirred in him again.
Ellipsis	Omitting an implied word	By the hat and out the door (he grabbed it and went out).
Parcellation	Dividing a single sentence into separate ones	And I think again. About you.
Multi-Union	Connecting through repeating conjunctions	And me, and you, and all of us together
Asyndeton	Elimination of unions	You, me, he, she – together the whole country.
Rhetorical exclamation, question, appeal.	Used to enhance feelings	What a summer! Who, if not us? Listen, country!
Default	Interruption of speech based on a guess, to reproduce strong excitement	My poor brother...execution...Tomorrow at dawn!
Emotional-evaluative vocabulary	Words expressing attitude, as well as direct assessment of the author	Henchman, dove, dunce, sycophant.

Test "Means of Artistic Expression"

To test your understanding of the material, take a short test.

Read the following passage:

“There the war smelled of gasoline and soot, burnt iron and gunpowder, it scraped with caterpillar tracks, screeched from machine guns and fell into the snow, and rose again under fire...”

What means of artistic expression are used in the excerpt from K. Simonov’s novel?

Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts.

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning,

And death and hell on all sides.

A. Pushkin

The answer to the test is given at the end of the article.

Expressive language is, first of all, an internal image that arises when reading a book, listening to an oral presentation, or a presentation. To manipulate images, visual techniques are needed. There are enough of them in the great and mighty Russian. Use them, and the listener or reader will find their own image in your speech pattern.

Study expressive language and its laws. Determine for yourself what is missing in your performances, in your drawing. Think, write, experiment, and your language will become an obedient tool and your weapon.

Answer to the test

K. Simonov. The personification of war in the passage. Metonymy: howling soldiers, equipment, battlefield - the author ideologically connects them into a generalized image of war. Techniques used expressive language– polyunion, syntactic repetition, parallelism. Through this combination stylistic devices When reading, a revived, rich image of war is created.

A. Pushkin. The poem lacks conjunctions in the first lines. In this way the tension and intensity of the battle are conveyed. In the phonetic design of the scene, the sound “r” plays a special role in different combinations. When reading, a rumbling, growling background appears, ideologically conveying the noise of battle.

If you were unable to give the correct answers while answering the test, do not be upset. Just re-read the article.

TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Paths include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperboles and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is ambiguous; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Pay attention! When creating a trope, the word is always used in a figurative sense.

Let's consider different types tropes:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature...(F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff illuminated(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Every epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author’s perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: wooden shelf- not an epithet, since there is no artistic definition here, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the speaker’s impression of the interlocutor’s facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote, portly, kind Well done, It's clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetition epithets, the same root with the defined word: Eh, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).

IN work of art an epithet can perform various functions:

describe the subject figuratively: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
convey the attitude of the author (storyteller, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: “Where will our prankster?" (A. Pushkin);
combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of using the epithet).

Pay attention! All color terms V literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON is an artistic technique (trope) in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likenings, in that it always has a strict formal sign: comparative construction or turnover with comparative unions as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs phenomena or conveying your attitude to several phenomena. Often a work is entirely based on comparison, such as, for example, V. Bryusov’s poem “Sonnet to Form”:

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (trope) in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not be confused, exactly human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans,” “The violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- correlate the depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, comprehend it figuratively inner essence an object hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek: Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite in content to hyperbole is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.

Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features depicted object. Often hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic way, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author’s point of view, aspects of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, a speech turn in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains hidden comparison, figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that “to put together good metaphors- means noticing similarities."

Examples of metaphor:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trope: figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic “Means of Artistic Expression” and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the concepts given. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing firmly that the technique of comparison has strict formal characteristics (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on the comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .

Please note that you must begin your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the complete answer. This applies to all such tasks.

Recommended reading:

Literary studies: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
Polyakov M. Rhetoric and literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.