Inorganic chemistry in reactions. Directory. Lidin R., Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L. Chemical properties of inorganic substances

Chemistry. Complete reference to prepare for the exam. Lidin R.A.

M.: 2009. - 288 p.

The handbook contains all the theoretical material on the course of chemistry necessary for passing the exam. It includes all elements of the content, checked by control and measuring materials, and helps to generalize and systematize knowledge and skills for the course of the secondary (complete) school.

The theoretical material is presented in a concise, accessible form. Each section is accompanied by examples. test items, allowing you to test your knowledge and the degree of preparedness for the certification exam. Practical tasks conform to the USE format. At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.

The manual is addressed to senior students, applicants and teachers.

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Content
Foreword
1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals
2. Periodic law. Periodic system. Electronegativity. Oxidation states
3. Molecules. chemical bond. The structure of substances
4. Classification and relationship inorganic substances
5. Metals of the main subgroups of groups I–III
5.1. Sodium
5.2. Potassium
5.3. Calcium
5.4. Hardness of water
5.5. Aluminum
6. Transition metals of the 4th period. Properties, methods of obtaining. General properties of metals
6.1. Chromium
6.2. Manganese
6.3. Iron
6.4. General properties of metals. Corrosion
7. Nonmetals of the main subgroups of groups IV–VII
7.1. Hydrogen
7.2. Halogens
7.2.1. Chlorine. Hydrogen chloride
7.2.2. chlorides
7.2.3. Hypochlorites. Chlorates
7.2.4. Bromides. iodides
7.3. Chalcogens
7.3.1. Oxygen
7.3.2. Sulfur. Hydrogen sulfide. Sulfides
7.3.3. Sulphur dioxide. Sulfites
7.3.4. Sulphuric acid. sulfates
7.4. Non-metals of the VA-group
7.4.1. Nitrogen. Ammonia
7.4.2. nitrogen oxides. Nitric acid
7.4.3. Nitrites. Nitrates
7.4.4. Phosphorus
7.5. Nonmetals of the IVA group
7.5.1. Free carbon
7.5.2. Oxides of carbon
7.5.3. Carbonates
7.5.4. Silicon
8. Theory of structure, diversity, classification and nomenclature of organic compounds. Types chemical reactions
9. Hydrocarbons. Homology and isomerism. Chemical properties and ways to get
9.1. Alkanes. Cycloalkanes
9.2. Alkenes. Alkadienes
9.3. Alkynes
9.4. Arenas
10. Oxygen-containing organic compounds
10.1. Alcohols. Ethers. Phenols
10.2. Aldehydes and ketones
10.3. carboxylic acids. Complex ethers. Fats
10.4. Carbohydrates
11. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds
11.1. Nitro compounds. Amines
11.2. Amino acids. Squirrels
12. Chemical reactions. Speed, energy and reversibility
12.1. Reaction rate
12.2. Energy of reactions
12.3. Reversibility of reactions
13. Aqueous solutions. Solubility and dissociation of substances. ion exchange. Salt hydrolysis
13.1. Solubility of substances in water
13.2. Electrolytic dissociation
13.3. dissociation of water. Solution medium
13.4. Ion exchange reactions
13.5. Salt hydrolysis
14. Redox reactions. Electrolysis
14.1. Oxidizing and reducing agents
14.2. Selection of coefficients by the electronic balance method
14.3. A range of stress metals
14.4. Melt and solution electrolysis
15. Solution of calculation problems
15.1. Mass fraction of the dissolved substance. Dilution, concentration and mixing of solutions
15.2. Volume ratio of gases
15.3. Mass of a substance (volume of gas) according to a known amount of another reagent (product)
15.4. Thermal effect of the reaction
15.5. Mass (volume, amount of substance) of the product according to the reagent in excess or with impurities
15.6. Mass (volume, amount of substance) of the product according to the reagent with a known mass fraction in solution
15.7. Finding the molecular formula of an organic compound
Answers

The guide includes all theoretical material school course chemistry required to pass the exam, - final certification students. This material is divided into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested at the USE - four content blocks: “Chemical Element”, “Substance”, “Chemical Reaction”, “Knowledge and Application of Substances and Chemical Reactions”. For each section, training tasks from parts A and B are given - with a choice of answers and a short answer. Section 15 is completely devoted to solving the computational problems included in examination part FROM.

Test tasks are designed in such a way that by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.

For the convenience of working with this guide, a table is provided that indicates the correspondence between the topics of the exam and sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to senior students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a certain type of atoms, denoted by a name and a symbol and characterized by a serial number and relative atomic mass.

In table. 1 lists the common chemical elements, the symbols by which they are denoted (in brackets - pronunciation), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic oxidation states.

Zero the oxidation state of an element in its simple matter(substances) is not listed in the table.

All atoms of one element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the same number of electrons in the shell. Thus, in the element atom hydrogen H is 1 p+ in the core and on the periphery 1 e- ; in the element atom oxygen Oh located 8 p+ in the core and 8 e- in the shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 R+ in the core and 13 e- in the shell.

Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus, such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1 H) with 1 p+ in the core and 1 e- in the shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2 H, or D) with 1 p+ and 1 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in the shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3 N, or T) with 1 p+ and 2 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in the shell. In the symbols 1 H, 2 H, and 3 H, the superscript indicates mass number is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula an atom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in the Periodic system of elements of D. I. Mendeleev can be determined from Table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels(1, 2, 3rd, etc.), levels are divided into sublevels(marked with letters s, p, d, f). The sublevels are made up of atomic orbitals– areas of space where electrons are likely to stay. Orbitals are designated as 1s (orbital of the 1st level of the s-sublevel), 2 s, 2 R, 3 s, 3 p, 3d, 4 s… Number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) minimum energy principle

Electrons fill the orbitals starting from the lower energy sublevel.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1 s< 2 c< 2 p< 3 s< 3 p< 4 s≤ 3 d< 4 p< 5 s≤ 4 d< 5 p< 6 s…

2) prohibition rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can hold at most two electrons.

One electron in the orbital is called unpaired, two electrons - electron pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

From the completed energy diagrams are derived electronic formulas element atoms. The number of electrons in the orbitals of a given sublevel is indicated in the superscript to the right of the letter (for example, 3 d 5 is 5 electrons per 3 d-sublevel); electrons of the 1st level go first, then the 2nd, 3rd, etc. Formulas can be complete and short, the latter contain in brackets the symbol of the corresponding noble gas, which conveys its formula, and, moreover, starting with Zn , the filled inner d-sublevel. Examples:

3 Li = 1s 2 2s 1 = [ 2 He]2s 1

8O=1s2 2s 2 2p 4= [ 2He] 2s 2 2p 4

13 Al = 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1= [ 10 Ne] 3s 2 3p 1

Inorganic chemistry in reactions. Directory. Lidin R.A., Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L.

2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2007 - 637 p.

The directory contains 1100 inorganic substances, for which the equations of the most important reactions are given. The choice of substances was justified by their theoretical and laboratory-industrial importance. The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a well-developed structure, provided with a subject index that makes it easy to find the right substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature. For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. Can be used by university professors, graduate students, scientific and engineering workers chemical industry as well as teachers and high school students high school.

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The reference book presents the chemical properties (reaction equations) of the most important compounds of 109 elements of the Periodic Table from hydrogen to meitnerium. More than 1100 inorganic substances are described in detail, the selection of which was carried out according to their industrial importance (starting substances for chemical processes, mineral raw materials), breadth of prevalence in engineering and educational and laboratory practice (model solvents and reagents, qualitative analysis reagents) and use in the latest branches of chemical technology.
The reference material is divided into sections, each of which is devoted to one element, the elements are arranged alphabetically by their symbols (from actinium Ac to zirconium Zr).
Any section consists of a number of headings, the first of which refers to a simple substance, and all subsequent ones - to complex substances, in the chemical formulas of which the section element is in the first (left) place. Substances of each section are listed alphabetically by their nomenclature formulas (with one exception: all corresponding acids are placed at the end of sections of acid-forming elements). For example, in the Actinium section there are headings Ac, AcC13, AcF3, Ac(N03)3, Ac203, Ac(OH)3. The formulas of compounds with a complex anion are given in inverted form, i.e. .
Each rubric contains short description substance, where its color, thermal stability, solubility, interaction (or its absence) with common reagents, etc. are indicated, as well as methods for obtaining this substance, designed as links to headings of other substances. References contain the symbol of the section element, the rubric number and the superscript number of the reaction equation.
Further in the rubric follows a numbered set of reaction equations, reflecting the main chemical properties of a given substance. In general, the order of the equations is as follows:
- thermal decomposition of the substance;
- dehydration or decomposition of crystalline hydrate;
- attitude to water;
- interaction with common acids (with the same type of reactions, the equation is given only for hydrochloric acid);
- interaction with alkalis (as a rule, with sodium hydroxide);
- interaction with ammonia hydrate;
- interaction with simple substances;
- exchange reactions with complex substances;
- redox reactions;
- reactions of complexation;
- electrochemical reactions (electrolysis of melt and/or solution).
The reaction equations indicate the conditions for their conduct and course, when this is important for understanding the chemistry and the degree of reversibility of the process. These conditions include:
- state of aggregation of reagents and/or products;
- coloring of reagents and/or products;
- the state of the solution or its characteristics (diluted, concentrated, saturated);
- slow reaction;
- temperature range, pressure (high or vacuum), catalyst;
- formation of a precipitate or gas;
- the solvent used, if different from water;
- inert or other special gaseous medium.
At the end of the guide there is a list of references and a subject index of headings.

R. A. Lidin

Chemistry: A complete guide to preparing for the exam

Foreword

The handbook includes all the theoretical material of the school chemistry course required to pass the Unified State Examination, the final assessment of students. This material is divided into 14 sections, the content of which corresponds to the topics tested at the USE - four content blocks: “Chemical Element”, “Substance”, “Chemical Reaction”, “Knowledge and Application of Substances and Chemical Reactions”. For each section, training tasks from parts A and B are given - with a choice of answers and a short answer. Section 15 is completely devoted to solving the calculation problems included in the examination part C.

Test tasks are designed in such a way that by answering them, the student will be able to more rationally repeat the main provisions of the school chemistry course.

At the end of the manual, answers to tests are given that will help schoolchildren and applicants to test themselves and fill in the gaps.

For the convenience of working with this guide, a table is provided that indicates the correspondence between the topics of the exam and sections of the book.

The manual is addressed to senior students, applicants and teachers.

1. Common elements. structure of atoms. Electronic shells. Orbitals

Chemical element- a certain type of atoms, denoted by a name and a symbol and characterized by a serial number and relative atomic mass.

In table. Table 1 lists common chemical elements, shows the symbols by which they are denoted (in brackets - pronunciation), serial numbers, relative atomic masses, characteristic oxidation states.

Zero the degree of oxidation of an element in its simple substance (substances) is not indicated in the table.

All atoms of one element have the same number of protons in the nucleus and the same number of electrons in the shell. Thus, in the element atom hydrogen H is 1 p+ in the core and on the periphery 1 e-; in the element atom oxygen Oh located 8 p+ in the core and 8 e- in the shell; element atom aluminum Al contains 13 R+ in the core and 13 e- in the shell.

Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus, such atoms are called isotopes. So, the element hydrogen H three isotopes: hydrogen-1 (special name and symbol protium 1H) with 1 p+ in the core and 1 e- in the shell; hydrogen-2 (deuterium 2H, or D) with 1 p+ and 1 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in the shell; hydrogen-3 (tritium 3H, or T) with 1 p+ and 2 P 0 in the core and 1 e- in the shell. In the symbols 1H, 2H, and 3H, the superscript indicates mass number is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Other examples:

Electronic formula an atom of any chemical element in accordance with its location in the Periodic system of elements of D. I. Mendeleev can be determined from Table. 2.

The electron shell of any atom is divided into energy levels(1, 2, 3rd, etc.), levels are divided into sublevels(marked with letters s, p, d, f). The sublevels are made up of atomic orbitals– areas of space where electrons are likely to stay. Orbitals are designated as 1s (orbital of the 1st level of the s-sublevel), 2 s, 2R, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s… Number of orbitals in sublevels:

The filling of atomic orbitals with electrons occurs in accordance with three conditions:

1) minimum energy principle

Electrons fill the orbitals starting from the lower energy sublevel.

The sequence of increasing energy of sublevels:

1s < 2c < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s ≤ 3d < 4p < 5s ≤ 4d < 5p < 6s…

2)prohibition rule (Pauli principle)

Each orbital can hold at most two electrons.

One electron in the orbital is called unpaired, two electrons - electron pair:

3) principle of maximum multiplicity (Hund's rule)

Within a sublevel, electrons first fill all the orbitals by half, and then completely.

Each electron has its own characteristic - spin (conventionally represented by an up or down arrow). The spins of the electrons add up as vectors, the sum of the spins given number electrons at the sublevel should be maximum(multiplicity):

Filling of levels, sublevels and orbitals of atoms of elements from H with electrons (Z= 1) to Kr (Z= 36) shown in energy diagram(the numbers correspond to the filling sequence and coincide with the serial numbers of the elements):

3Li = 1s22s1 = 2s1

8O=1s2 2s22p4 = 2s22p4

13Al = 1s22s22p6 3s23p1 = 3s23p1

17Cl = 1s22s22p6 3s23p5 = 3s23p5

2OCa = 1s22s22p63s23p 4s2 = 4s2

21Sc = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d14s2 = 3d14s2

25Mn = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s2 = 3d54s2

26Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d64s2 = 3d64s2

3OZn = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s2 = 4s2

33As = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p3 = 4s24p3

36Kr = 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24p6 = 4s24p6

Electrons outside brackets are called valence. They are involved in the formation of chemical bonds.

The exception is:

24Cr = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d54s1 = Зd54s1(not 3d44s2!),

29Cu = 1s22s22p63s23p6 3d104s1 = 3d104s1(not 3d94s2!).

Examples of Part A assignments

1. Name, not related to hydrogen isotopes

1) deuterium

2) oxonium

2. The formula for the valence sublevels of a metal atom is

3. The number of unpaired electrons in the ground state of an iron atom is

4. In the excited state of the aluminum atom, the number of unpaired electrons is

5. The electronic formula 3d94s0 corresponds to the cation

6. The electronic formula of the E2-3s23p6 anion corresponds to the element

7. The total number of electrons in the Mg2+ cation and F- anion is

2. Periodic law. Periodic system. Electronegativity. Oxidation states

The modern formulation of the Periodic Law, discovered by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869:

The properties of the elements are in a periodic dependence on the ordinal number.

Periodically recurring nature of composition change electron shell atoms of elements explains the periodic change in the properties of elements when moving through periods and groups of the Periodic system.

The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a well-developed structure, provided with a subject index that makes it easy to find the right substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature.

For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. It can be used by university teachers, graduate students, scientific and engineering workers of the chemical industry, as well as teachers and students of senior secondary schools.

Al - aluminum.

White, light, ductile metal. Passivated in concentrated water nitric acid and a solution of potassium dichromate due to the formation of a stable oxide film; amalgamated metal reacts with water. Reactive, strong reducing agent. Shows amphoteric properties; reacts with dilute acids and alkalis.

AIN - aluminum nitride.

White, very hard, refractory, thermally stable. Does not react with liquid water, completely hydrolyzes with water vapor. Insoluble in ethanol. Reacts with acids and alkalis, but acid-resistant in a compact form.

ZnS - zinc(II) sulfide.

White, amorphous (precipitated from solution) or crystalline - cubic a-modification and hexagonal B-modification. Sensitive to UV radiation. In amorphous form, it is more reactive. It is peptized (passes into a colloidal solution) during long-term treatment with hydrogen sulfide water. It does not dissolve in water, does not react with alkalis, ammonia hydrate. Reacts with strong acids, 02 air slowly oxidizes when wet.

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Download the book Reactions of inorganic substances, reference book, Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L., Lidin R.A., 2007 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.

Constants of inorganic substances, Handbook, Lidin R.A., Andreeva L.L., Molochko V.A., 2008
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