Political views and attitudes towards reforms. Liberal reforms of Alexander II - reasons, historical significance

The reforms of Alexander II were an attempt by the Russian authorities to bring the order of the Russian Empire in line with the realities of the 19th century. Indeed, at a time when Russia remained a semi-feudal power, in Europe in full swing The industrial revolution was underway: railways were built, electricity and steam power were introduced everywhere in everyday life and industry. Social relations developed in the direction of liberalism

By the middle of the 19th century, Russia moved to eighth place in metal smelting. England outnumbered it 12 times.
By the middle of the century, Russia had 1.5 thousand km. railway tracks, while in England there were 15 thousand km.
The average harvest in Russia is 4.63 quarters per tithe, in France - 7.36 quarters, in Austria - 6.6
In 1861, there were about 2 million mechanical spindles and about 15 thousand mechanical looms in the Russian cotton industry. In England, by 1834, over 8 million mechanical spindles, 110 thousand mechanical looms and 250 thousand hand looms were working in the cotton industry.

Brief biography of Alexander II

1818, April 17 - birth
1825, December 12 - declared heir to the throne.
1826 - V. A. Zhukovsky was appointed mentor to the heir, who in the same year developed a 10-year plan for the education of Alexander Nikolaevich.
1834, April 17 - Alexander, on the day of his majority, took the oath of allegiance to the emperor
1837, May 2-December 10 - Alexander Nikolaevich traveled around Russia, during which he visited 29 provinces of the empire
1838-1839, May 2-June 23 - travel abroad, summing up Alexander's training
1841, April 16 - wedding of Alexander Nikolaevich and Princess Maria Alexandrovna of Hesse-Darmstadt
1842, August 18 - birth of daughter Alexandra (died in 1849)
1839-1842 - Alexander became a member of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers
1843, September 8 - birth of son Nicholas (died 1865)
1845, February 26 - birth of the son Alexander, the future emperor (died in 1894)
1847, April 10 - birth of son Vladimir (died 1909)
1850, January 2 - son Alexey was born (died in 1908)
1852 - appointed commander-in-chief of the Guards and Grenadier Corps
1853, October 17 - daughter Maria was born, died in 1920
1855, February 18 - death
1855, February 19 - accession to the Russian throne of Emperor Alexander II
1856, August 26 - coronation of Alexander II in Moscow
1857, April 29 - son Sergei was born, died in 1905
1860, September 21 - son Pavel was born, died in 1919
1861, February 19 - Alexander II signed the Manifesto and Regulations on the liberation of peasants from serfdom
1865, April 12 - death of the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Nikolai Alexandrovich and proclamation of Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich as heir
1866, April 4 - attempt by D. Karakozov on the life of Alexander II
1867, May 25 - attempt by A. Berezovsky on the life of Alexander II
1879, April 2 - attempt by A. Solovyov on the life of Alexander II
1879, November 19 - explosion of the royal train near Moscow
1880, February 12 - explosion of the royal dining room in the Winter Palace
1880, February 19 - celebration of the 25th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Alexander II.
1880, May 22 - death of Empress Maria Alexandrovna.
1880, July 6 - marriage of Alexander II to E. M. Dolgorukaya-Yuryevskaya.
1881 March 1 - death of Alexander II at the hands of terrorists from the organization

On February 18, 1855, Emperor Nicholas I died. The Russian throne was taken by his son Alexander (II). The Crimean War was still ongoing, but its unsuccessful course increasingly confirmed Russian society in the idea that the country was lagging behind the West in its development and that radical reforms of the entire structure of Russian life were required. The reforms were initiated by Emperor Alexander II

Reasons for the reforms of Alexander II

The existence of serfdom, which slowed down economic development Russia
Defeat in
Lack of opportunities for the classes of the Empire to influence the activities of the state

Reforms of Alexander II

Peasant reform. Abolition of serfdom (1861)
Financial reforms (since 1863)
Educational reform (1863)
Zemstvo reform
Urban reform (1864)
Judicial reform (1864)
Military reform(1874)

Peasant reform

Declaring serfs personally free without ransom
The landowners retained a third of the estate in the Non-Black Earth Region and half of the estate in the Black Earth Region.
Land was provided to the peasant community
The peasant received the allotment on the right of use and could not refuse it
According to certain preferential rules, the peasant paid the landowner a ransom for the full allotment
(a peasant could receive 2.5 dessiatines of land without ransom.)
Before the land was redeemed, the peasant was considered “temporarily obligated” to the landowner and was obliged to fulfill the previous duties - corvee and quitrent (abolished in 1882–1887)
The location of peasant plots was determined by the landowner
The peasant received
- personal freedom,
- independence from the landowner;
- the right to move to other classes;
- the right to marry independently;
- freedom of choice of occupation;
- the right to defend one's cases in court.
- make transactions independently
- acquire and dispose of property;
- engage in trade and crafts
- participate in local government elections

Having abolished serfdom, Alexander remained in the history of Russia under the name of the Liberator

Financial reform

It was aimed at streamlining the work of the state’s financial apparatus

The state budget was compiled by the Ministry of Finance, approved by the State Council, and then by the Emperor
The budget began to be published for public review
All ministries were required to prepare annual budgets indicating all expenditure items
State financial control bodies were created - control chambers
Wine taxation was replaced by excise stamps and local excise departments were created to issue excise taxes.
Taxation was divided into indirect taxes and direct taxes

Education reform

A new university charter was adopted, which provided universities with broad autonomy
Regulations on primary schools were adopted
The Charter on secondary educational institutions dividing them into 2 types: classical gymnasiums, their graduates had the right to enter the university without exams; and real schools
A system of women's education has been created: the law on women's schools
A new press law was adopted, which reduced censorship activities

Zemstvo reform. Briefly

Its goal is to replace the bureaucratic management of the territory from the Center with a local government body consisting of residents of a given area, better than anyone familiar with the local realities of life
Elected provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and zemstvo councils were created. They were in charge of local economic affairs: the maintenance of communication routes; construction and maintenance of schools and hospitals; hiring doctors and paramedics; arrangement of courses for training the population; development of local trade and industry; arrangement of grain warehouses; taking care of livestock and poultry farming; levying taxes for local needs, etc.

Urban reform

Pursued the same goals as the zemstvo. In provincial and district cities, city public administrations were organized, which were in charge of economic issues: external improvement of the city, food supply, fire safety, construction of piers, exchanges and credit institutions, etc. The institutions of city self-government meant the city electoral assembly, duma and city council. government

Judicial reform. Briefly

The judicial system under Nicholas the First was irrational and complex. Judges were dependent on the authorities. There was no competition. The right of the parties and defendants to defense was limited. Often judges did not see the defendants at all, but decided the case based on documents drawn up by the court office. The basis for the legal reform of Alexander II was the following provisions:

Independence of the Judiciary
Single court for all classes
Publicity of proceedings
Adversarial proceedings
The right of parties and defendants to defense in court
Openness of all evidence brought against the defendants
The right of the parties and convicted persons to file a cassation appeal;
Abolition of review of cases by a higher authority without complaints from the parties and protest from the prosecutor
Educational and professional qualifications for all judicial officers
Irremovability of judges
Separation of the prosecutor's office from the court
Jury trial for those accused of crimes of medium and great gravity

(Great Reforms) - reforms carried out in the 60-70s of the 19th century in Russian Empire Emperor Alexander 2 and affecting almost all spheres of life of the state.

Prerequisites and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2

Russia remained a country with a feudal system and serfdom longer than any other state. By the middle of the 19th century, this type of state had completely outlived its usefulness, and the conflict, which had been brewing since the 18th century, reached its peak. There was an urgent need to change both the state structure and, mainly, the economic system.

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial equipment, the need for manual labor, however, the landowners still actively used the labor of the peasants, imposing huge taxes on them. As a result, the peasantry went bankrupt everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in serfdom and the income of landowners. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the bankrupt landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, since due to the widespread enslavement of peasants, there was not enough free labor that could service the machines in factories.

In 1859-1861 peasant riots and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak. The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which completely undermined citizens' trust in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

Emperor Alexander 2, who came to the throne in 1855, at one of his speeches before the nobility, declared the need for the speedy elimination of serfdom from above (by decree of the sovereign), otherwise it will happen from below (revolution).

The era of great reforms has begun.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:

Peasant reform (1861);
Financial reform (1863);
Educational reform (1863);
Zemstvo reform (1864);
Judicial reform (1864);
Reform of state self-government (1870);
Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state. One of the most important reforms was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and bourgeoisie, was carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy himself an arable plot for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury. In addition, peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, could open trade and industrial enterprises, apply for a transfer to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

Another reform of Alexander 2 was the reform of the press. In the Empire, such a concept as openness and freedom of the press (relative) appeared; newspapers could discuss events carried out by the government and even criticize individual ministers, however, without affecting the emperor. The Iron Curtain was also lifted, and people could leave the country more freely.

The judicial system has also changed. The old type of court was replaced by a new one, which proclaimed the principle of unity for all classes and the principle of publicity and openness. The jury appeared, which allowed the judiciary to separate from the executive branch and make more independent decisions.

Zemstvo and city reforms created open local government bodies, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this significantly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing Peter's conscription system with universal conscription. This allowed for the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at as soon as possible as soon as necessary. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, others began to appear educational institutions. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.

Results and consequences of the reforms of Alexander 2

It is not for nothing that the political and financial reforms carried out by Alexander 2 are called great. Thanks to them, the formation of a new type of society in the Russian Empire was laid - an industrial society of the capitalist type. The state became more democratic, citizens began to have more equal rights, independent of class, as well as the opportunity for a fair and open trial. The press became freer, allowing citizens to be able to discuss and condemn government decisions.

The liberation of peasants and reforms in the economy allowed the country to emerge from the crisis and create conditions for further successful growth, taking into account new economic realities.

Overall, the country has experienced significant changes, which helped her take a new path of development, more successful and modern.

If we talk about ideology, then the position of Alexander Nikolaevich can hardly be defined unambiguously as liberal or, say, conservative. And not at all because he was politically omnivorous or, as political scientists put it, a conformist. He was sincerely and confidently ready to act according to the circumstances, but these actions were determined not so much by his political sympathies as by the pragmatic wishes of the head of state, the monarch. “Due to historical circumstances, Alexander II and his immediate circle, as already noted, felt the breath of time better than anyone else in Russia and, if they did not blink their eyes, did not try to impose their point of view on time, then they had a real chance to lead the country along the path gradual but necessary changes without unnecessary losses and shocks.

As mentioned above, Alexander II never - neither in his youth nor in his mature years - adhered to any specific theory or concept in his views on the history of Russia and the tasks public administration. His general views were characterized by the idea of the inviolability of the autocracy and the existing statehood of Russia as a stronghold of its unity, and of the divine origin of tsarist power. He confesses to his father, having become acquainted with Russia on a trip: “I consider myself happy that God has ordained me to devote my whole life to it.” Having become an autocrat, he identified himself with Russia, considering his role, his mission as serving the sovereign greatness of the Fatherland.

And later, from the time of his activities in the public sphere, he made decisions based not on own desires, but from the needs of Russia.

The first of the important decisions of Alexander II, delimiting the new reign from Nicholas's - the conclusion of the Paris Peace in March 1856 - revealed in him the ability to abandon erroneous views and assessments (until the end of 1855 he stood for the continuation of the war), the ability to overcome opposition ( in this case - adamant patriots), preferring common sense to outdated concepts and traditions. Without giving up imperial claims and interests (decisive victories in the Caucasian War were won in the first years of his reign), Alexander II realized the priority and need for internal reforms to restore the greatness of Russia, its place and role in Europe after defeat in the war.

The situation was the same in solving the peasant question. In his views and concepts, he was not a liberal at all. On the contrary, as chairman of two Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs, 1846 and 1848, he declared himself a champion of serfdom more decisive and outspoken than the monarch father himself. The argumentation of this position in the journal of the Secret Committee of 1846, signed by him, is interesting: “Until Russia, due to unforeseen fates, loses its unity and power, until then other powers cannot serve as an example to it. This colossus requires a different foundation and different concepts of freedom not only for peasants, but also for all classes,” freedom in Russia must consist in obedience to all laws emanating from one supreme source.” But nevertheless, “For five years, until the adoption of the “Regulations of February 19, 1861,” he showed an unshakable will in the decision to abolish serfdom. His firmness, his stubborn opposition to reaction were fueled not by commitment or sympathy for liberalism, but by the confidence that the sovereign interests of Russia, its greatness and place in the family of peoples of Europe required the abolition of serfdom as an outdated and obsolete institution. This confidence supported and strengthened the will of the monarch, which was not at all powerful by nature. The unshakable determination of Alexander II to abolish serfdom in the conditions of the autocratic-monarchical system of Russia was the main guarantor of its implementation during the entire period of preparation of the peasant reform.”

Reassured by the beginning of the implementation of the peasant reform, the emperor considered that the remaining transformations could be carried out purely at the top, excluding the opinions and wishes of the reform-minded part of society. Ultimately, the trouble of Alexander II was not that he did not give the country a constitution, but that that he entrusted the conduct of important political events to the highest bureaucracy. As a result, another paradox emerged: zemstvo, judicial, university, and censorship reforms, despite all their necessity, did not serve to reconcile society and government, but alienated them from each other.

In this neglect of the welfare of the people, one of the prominent representatives of the liberal bureaucracy, the minister, foresaw a great danger to the entire cause of reforms and the reigning dynasty. public education in 1861-1866 A.V. Golovnin. Sent by Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich in the summer of 1860 to the central provinces of Russia to familiarize himself with the situation in the village, he came to conclusions that were striking in their insight and depth. “I admit that the future seems extremely worrying to me,” he wrote on July 24, 1860 to the governor of the Caucasus and friend of Alexander II, Prince A.I. Baryatinsky. - I spent this summer in the center of Russia, among the population of truly Russian people who, forming a compressed colossal mass, speak the same language, profess the same faith, have the same interests, constituting the true strength of Russia and representing a whole power in itself. Looking closely at the state of the country and remembering the state budgets, I find that over the past 40 years the government has taken a lot from the people and given them very little. It took people, direct and indirect taxes, hard work, etc. - took most of the income, and then the people, thanks to bad administration, paid much more than the treasury received. What did the government do at the same time for these places, in return for all the taxes? Nothing... State income, half of which is based on the immorality of the people, or, rather, on their corruption, wine farming, was spent on paying interest on the debt, on the army, navy and on this distant Petersburg... So, the money received from taxes was not spent on their real needs, the most necessary. All this was a great injustice; and since every injustice is always punished, I am sure that this punishment will not be long in coming. It will come when the peasant children, who are now only infants, grow up and understand everything that I just talked about. This can happen during the reign of the grandson of the real sovereign.”

serfdom alexander political reform

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I and his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ascended the throne on February 18, 1855. Alexander II was crowned on August 26, 1856 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

In historical science, traditionally the 50s and 60s. XIX century considered a revolutionary situation, which is understood as a set of characteristics independent of the will of individual groups, classes or parties, making a social revolution quite possible. Russian revolutionary situation of the 50-60s. XIX century had its own characteristics:

2) the extraordinary severity of the agrarian (peasant) question - the question of relations regarding land ownership and the associated socio-political struggle (according to statistics, by the middle of the 19th century in Russia there were 22 million serfs for every 110 thousand landowners);

3) the most severe national catastrophe - defeat in Crimean War(1853 – 1855): according to Treaty of Paris(1856) Russia lost Southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; she was prohibited not only from having a fleet, fortresses and arsenals in the Black Sea (the so-called principle of neutralization of the sea), but also from participating in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule. In addition, the war revealed Russia's technical and military lag behind the advanced European countries - England and France.

Thus, reforms were a vital necessity, otherwise the revolutionary situation threatened to develop into a revolution, the result of which, given the characteristics and specifics of Russia, was impossible to predict. Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement intensified noticeably after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855. As always, in Russia special hopes were placed on the new emperor. The so-called "era of glasnost" The government's actions were accelerated by the socio-political movement that developed after the war for the abolition of serfdom, since this problem was of paramount importance. In 1855 - 1857 Writers, publicists, scientists, and government officials submitted 63 notes to the emperor with options for resolving this issue. The approach to the problem and the program of practical action were different, but everyone was united by an understanding of the need for fundamental changes. IN social movement Three main directions were clearly identified.

1. The radical left movement was grouped around the Sovremennik magazine and foreign publications of A. I. Herzen. Supporters of this trend criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia. On the extreme flank were N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov, who rejected all kinds of compromises and projects for the liberation of the peasants from above, through the actions of the government. They considered the most desirable a mass movement of peasants and the abolition of serfdom from below, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society based on equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

2. The moderate-liberal current was the most influential and included the flower of the then Russian intelligentsia. Its composition was heterogeneous and included Slavophiles (Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev), Westerners (B. N. Chicherin, K. D. Kavelin, A. M. Unkovsky), as well as many major officials of various ministries and departments of the tsarist government. The program of the liberal camp was outlined by K. D. Kavelin in his “Note on the Liberation of Peasants in Russia,” intended for the Tsar, but which received wide publicity. The document sharply criticized serfdom, which was a “ticking time bomb” that in a few decades would “explode the entire state.” Therefore, the government needs to quickly abolish serfdom, allocate land to the peasants by voluntary agreement with the landowners and for ransom, and provide financial support to the peasants. The liberal program, after some hesitation, became the basis of government policy on the peasant issue.

3. The conservative direction was supported by the majority of the nobility. Understanding the need for change, it believed that this should be done gradually, without breaking the foundations of landownership. The conservative program received concrete embodiment in the notes of 1855–1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner M.P. Posen: peasants receive personal freedom for ransom; land purchase is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; The government must provide loans to peasants for this.

Thus, followers of all social movements agreed on the need for change. The fear of an explosion of peasant discontent, a “new Pugachevism,” united liberals and conservatives. The differences were in the depth, path and pace of the inevitable reforms. The liquidation of the serfdom historically matured not only in the course of the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. Under the existing political system in Russia, reforms could be carried out at the will of the emperor. Existing in historical literature the opinion about the possibility of liberating the peasants “from below”, through a general revolt, is unrealistic and would only lead to chaos and destruction. And there were no prerequisites for a general peasant uprising at that time.

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX century associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 – 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He wasn't outstanding personality, similar to Peter I. Pupil of the famous poet V.A. Zhukovsky, the tsar did not have a broad outlook and was not a convinced reformer, but he realistically perceived the events taking place and had sufficient determination to carry out fundamental changes to strengthen and preserve the existing autocratic system. The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism of the first half of the 19th century V., knew how to select talented assistants who were capable of implementing his ideas, as well as listen to public opinion and change their positions if necessary.

The abolition of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations. The changed system required the adoption of new laws and the introduction of new management institutions. This task was fulfilled to a certain extent by the reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century

Judicial reform

Preparations for the reform began in 1861. According to the new judicial statutes (November 20, 1864) trial was organized as a competition between a lawyer (defense side) and a prosecutor (prosecution side). The meetings were held publicly. When considering criminal cases, there were jurors (12 people) representing society (elected from local citizens of all classes). The next lists included men aged 25–70 years, Russians who owned property worth at least 200 rubles, and peasants with experience in the local government system. Judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent from the administration.

Zemstvo reform(1864). The reform of local self-government was developed by a commission under the Ministry of Internal Affairs since 1859, chaired by N. A. Milyutin and since 1861 by P. A. Valuev. The administrative bodies of zemstvos were district and provincial assemblies, whose members were called vowels. From the members of the assembly, executive zemstvo bodies were elected - councils consisting of a chairman and several members), as well as commissions for developing local economic issues: collecting state taxes and taxes, caring for health care and public education, etc.

Elections to zemstvos were held once every three years. Voters were divided into three curia (electoral assemblies): landowning, urban and peasant. To participate in elections for the first two curiae, you had to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles and above). Small owners who did not have full qualifications could participate in elections through representatives whom they elected at their congresses.

The number of authorized representatives was equal to the number of full qualifications, which was given by adding the value of the property of small owners. Elections for the peasant curia were multi-stage: first, candidates were elected, who then selected the required number of vowels from among themselves.

The members of the provincial zemstvo assembly were elected by the district assemblies from among their members. It was impossible to implement all the tasks assigned to the zemstvos with the help of the vowels alone, so the zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy to work - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc. - who were called zemstvo employees. Contrary to the expectations of the government, the zemstvos did not confine themselves to solving local economic affairs, but actively participated in the political struggle, becoming the basis of the liberal movement in Russia.

Urban reform(1870). Its preparation was carried out simultaneously with the zemstvo reform. At its origins were N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin and other famous Russian reformers. The basis for city management was the “City Charter” of 1785. The new “City Regulations” were adopted in 1870. City self-government was built on the same principles as zemstvo.

The representative bodies of city self-government were city councils, elected for four years from among city owners - payers of city taxes. Voters were listed in order of decreasing amount of tax they paid. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, from each of which a third of the deputies (vocals) were elected to the city duma. Persons who did not own property and did not pay city taxes did not participate in the elections. City Duma elected members of the city government and the mayor (executive bodies of city government).

Military reforms(1862 – 1874). They were carried out under the leadership of D. A. Milyutin, F. A. Heiden, N. A. Isakov, N. N. Obruchev, E. I. Gotleben participated in the development of military reform projects. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Peace of Paris, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat effectiveness:

1) change in the system of leadership of the armed forces (1862 - 1864 - formation of military districts and increased centralization in the management of ground forces; 1865 - creation of the General Staff as the central link in army control; 1868 - reorganization of the Ministry of War);

2) rearmament of the army;

6) reduction in service life (service in the ground forces and navy consisted of active (up to 6 - 7 years) and reserve (3 - 9 years). Family (only son) and public (clergy, scientists), as well as education provided benefits for exemption from military service or reduction of its term);

(1863 – 1864). During the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions increased significantly, incl. for children from low-income, usually peasant, families. In post-reform Russia, women's education has received widespread development. Women's gymnasiums were opened, at which pedagogical courses were created. For the daughters of clergy, diocesan schools were created to train teachers for primary schools. In 1878, social activists led by St. Petersburg University professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin achieved the opening of Higher Women's Courses in the capital, equivalent to a university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the leadership of Professor V.I. Guerrier. The beginning of women's medical education was laid. Reform in the educational sector has given rise to new type Russian intellectual: widely educated, critically thinking, striving for active social and practical activity.

Censorship reform(1865). A commission chaired by Prince worked on the first draft of the censorship law. D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Public Education (A. V. Golovnina), and the second project was drawn up by the new commission of D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P. A. Valueva). The law was put into effect on September 1, 1865. In two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the order and conditions for the publication of books and the press partially changed. Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be printed without prior censorship with the permission of the Minister of the Interior. If a “harmful” trend was detected in them, the perpetrators (author, publisher, translator or editor) were prosecuted by the court. A system of administrative penalties was introduced - warnings from the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend periodical for a period of up to 6 months or its final ban by the highest decision.

Reforms of Alexander 2

In politics, as in everything public life, not to go forward means to be thrown back.

Lenin Vladimir Ilyich

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer.

During his reign, significant changes took place in Russia, the main one of which concerns the solution of the peasant question. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom. Such a radical step was long overdue, but its implementation was associated with a large number difficulties.

2. Liberal reforms of Alexander II (60-70s of the 19th century): reasons, historical significance

The abolition of serfdom required the emperor to carry out other reforms that were supposed to return Russia to a leading position on the world stage. The country has accumulated huge amount problems that had not been resolved since the era of Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1. The new emperor had to place great emphasis on solving these problems, carrying out largely liberal reforms, since the previous path of conservatism did not lead to positive consequences.

The main reasons for reforming Russia

Alexander 2 came to power in 1855, and he immediately faced an acute problem in carrying out reforms in almost all spheres of state life.

The main reasons for the reforms of the era of Alexander 2 are as follows:

Defeat in the Crimean War.
Growing discontent of the people.
Losing economic competition to Western countries.
Progressive entourage of the emperor.

It is also important to understand here that even though the previous era was called “the apogee of autocracy,” this was flattery. Nicholas 1 was drunk on victory in Patriotic War, and apparent dominance over European countries. He was afraid to make significant changes in Russia. Therefore, the country actually reached a dead end, and his son Alexander 2 was forced to solve the gigantic problems of the Empire.

What reforms were carried out

We have already said that the main reform of Alexander 2 was the abolition of serfdom.

It was this transformation that confronted the country with the need to modernize all other areas. In short, the main changes were as follows.

Financial reform 1860 - 1864. A state bank, zemstvo and commercial banks are created. The activities of banks were mainly aimed at supporting industry. IN last year reforms, control bodies are created, independent of local authorities, which carry out inspections financial activities authorities.

Zemstvo reform of 1864.

With its help, the problem of attracting the broad masses of the population to solve everyday issues was solved. Elected bodies of zemstvo and local self-government were created.

Judicial reform of 1864. After the reform, the court became more “legal.” Under Alexander 2, jury trials were introduced for the first time, transparency, the ability to bring any person to trial regardless of his position, the independence of the court from local administrations, corporal punishment was abolished, and much more.

Education reform of 1864.

This reform completely changed the system that Nicholas 1 tried to build, who sought to separate the population from knowledge. Alexander 2 promoted the principle of public education, which would be accessible to all classes. For this purpose, new primary schools and gymnasiums were opened.

In particular, it was during the Alexander era that women's gymnasiums began to open and women were admitted to the civil service.

Censorship reform of 1865. These changes absolutely supported the previous course. Control continued to be exercised over everything that was published, since revolutionary activities in Russia were extremely active.

Urban reform of 1870.

It was mainly used for the improvement of cities, the development of markets, healthcare, education, the establishment of sanitary standards, and so on. Reforms were introduced in 509 cities out of 1,130 in Russia. The reform was not applied to cities located in Poland, Finland and Central Asia.

Military reform of 1874. It was mainly spent on the modernization of weapons, the development of the fleet and the training of personnel. As a result Russian army has once again become one of the leading companies in the world.

Consequences of reforms

The reforms of Alexander 2 had the following consequences for Russia:

Prospects have been created for building a capitalist model of the economy.
The level of state regulation of the economy was reduced in the country, and a free labor market was created. However, the industry was not 100% ready to accept the capitalist model. This required more time.
The foundations for the formation of civil society have been laid. The population received more civil rights and freedoms. This applies to all areas of activity, from education to real freedoms of movement and work.
Strengthening the opposition movement.
The bulk of the reforms of Alexander 2 were liberal, so the liberal movements, which were attributed to Nicholas the First, began to gain strength again. It was during this era that the key aspects that led to the events of 1917 were laid down.

Defeat in the Crimean War as a justification for reforms

Russia lost the Crimean War for several reasons:

Lack of communications.
Russia is a huge country and moving an army across it is very difficult. Nicholas 1 began construction to solve this problem railway, but this project was not implemented due to banal corruption. The money intended for the construction of a railway connecting Moscow and the Black Sea region was simply torn apart.
Disagreement in the army. The soldiers and officers did not understand each other. There was a whole gulf between them, both class and educational. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Nicholas 1 demanded severe punishment of soldiers for any offense.
This is where the nickname of the Emperor among the soldiers comes from - “Nikolai Palkin”.
Military-technical lag behind Western countries.

Today, many historians say that the scale of the defeat in the Crimean War was simply gigantic, and this is the main factor indicating that Russia needed reforms.

This idea is supported and supported also in Western countries. After the capture of Sevastopol, all European publications wrote that autocracy in Russia had outlived its usefulness, and the country needed changes.

But main problem was something else. In 1812 Russia won great victory. This victory created among the emperors the absolute illusion that the Russian army was invincible. And now the Crimean War dispelled this illusion, Western armies demonstrate their superiority in technically.

All this led to the fact that officials, who pay great attention to opinions from abroad, accepted a national inferiority complex and began to try to convey it to the entire population.

But the truth is that the scale of defeat in the war is extremely overestimated. Of course, the war was lost, but this does not mean that Alexander 2 ruled a weak Empire.

It must be remembered that in the Crimean War Russia was opposed by the best and most developed countries of Europe at that time. And despite this, England and its other allies still remember this war and the valor of Russian soldiers with horror.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II - reasons, historical significance

Alexander Nikolaevich, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I and his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ascended the throne on February 18, 1855.

Alexander II

Russian revolutionary situation of the 50-60s. XIX century had its own characteristics:

1) the crisis of the feudal-serf system - the stage of the decomposition of feudalism, when feudal relations of production reached a dead end and became fetters in the development of capitalism;

in Russia, for every 110 thousand landowners there were 22 million serfs);

3) the most severe national catastrophe - defeat in the Crimean War (1853 - 1855): according to the Treaty of Paris (1856), Russia lost Southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube; she was prohibited not only from having a fleet, fortresses and arsenals in the Black Sea (the so-called principle of neutralization of the sea), but also from participating in the struggle of the Slavic peoples of the Balkans against Turkish rule.

In addition, the war revealed Russia's technical and military lag behind the advanced European countries - England and France.

Failures in the Crimean War caused a wave of public discontent. The social movement intensified noticeably after the death of Nicholas I in February 1855. As always, in Russia special hopes were placed on the new emperor. The so-called "era of glasnost" The government's actions were accelerated by the socio-political movement that developed after the war for the abolition of serfdom, since this problem was of paramount importance.

In 1855 - 1857 Writers, publicists, scientists, and government officials submitted 63 notes to the emperor with options for resolving this issue.

The approach to the problem and the program of practical action were different, but everyone was united by an understanding of the need for fundamental changes. In the social movement, three main directions were clearly distinguished.

The radical left movement was grouped around the Sovremennik magazine and foreign publications of A. I. Herzen. Supporters of this trend criticized the entire socio-political system of Russia.

On the extreme flank were N.G. Chernyshevsky and N.A. Dobrolyubov, who rejected all kinds of compromises and projects for the liberation of the peasants from above, through the actions of the government. They considered the most desirable a mass movement of peasants and the abolition of serfdom from below, since they were adherents of socialist ideas and dreamed of a new social structure of society based on equality, justice and universal inspired labor.

2. The moderate-liberal current was the most influential and included the flower of the then Russian intelligentsia.

It was heterogeneous in composition and included Slavophiles (Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev), Westerners (B. N. Chicherin, K. D. Kavelin, A. M. Unkovsky), as well as many major officials of various ministries and departments of the tsarist government. The program of the liberal camp was outlined by K. D. Kavelin in his “Note on the Liberation of Peasants in Russia,” intended for the Tsar, but which received wide publicity. The document sharply criticized serfdom, which was a “ticking time bomb” that in a few decades would “explode the entire state.”

Therefore, the government needs to quickly abolish serfdom, allocate land to the peasants by voluntary agreement with the landowners and for ransom, and provide financial support to the peasants. The liberal program, after some hesitation, became the basis of government policy on the peasant issue.

The conservative direction was supported by the majority of the nobility. Understanding the need for change, it believed that this should be done gradually, without breaking the foundations of landownership.

The conservative program received concrete embodiment in the notes of 1855–1856. Alexander II, compiled by the Poltava landowner M.P. Posen: peasants receive personal freedom for ransom; land purchase is carried out only with the consent of the landowner; The government must provide loans to peasants for this.

Thus, followers of all social movements agreed on the need for change. The fear of an explosion of peasant discontent, a “new Pugachevism,” united liberals and conservatives.

The differences were in the depth, path and pace of the inevitable reforms. The liquidation of the serfdom historically matured not only in the course of the objective development of the country, but also in the minds of people. Under the existing political system in Russia, reforms could be carried out at the will of the emperor. The opinion prevailing in historical literature about the possibility of liberating the peasants “from below”, through a general rebellion, is unrealistic and would only lead to chaos and destruction.

And there were no prerequisites for a general peasant uprising at that time.

Reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX century

associated with the name of Emperor Alexander II (1855 – 1881). In the conditions of the Russian autocratic system, the sovereign played a decisive role. There are different opinions about the character and personal qualities of Alexander II. He was not an outstanding personality like Peter I. Pupil of the famous poet V.A.

Reforms of Alexander 2

Zhukovsky, the tsar did not have a broad outlook and was not a convinced reformer, but he realistically perceived the events taking place and had sufficient determination to carry out radical changes to strengthen and preserve the existing autocratic system.

The heir to the Russian throne, brought up in the spirit of European humanism of the first half of the 19th century, knew how to select talented assistants who could implement his ideas, as well as listen to public opinion and change their positions if necessary.

The abolition of serfdom radically changed the structure of social relations.

The changed system required the adoption of new laws and the introduction of new management institutions. This task was fulfilled to a certain extent by the reforms of the 60s and 70s. XIX century

Judicial reform(1864). The reform was prepared by professional lawyers - N. A. Budkovsky, S. I. Zarudny, K. P. Pobedonostsev, D. A. Rovinsky, N. I. Stoyanovsky.

Preparations for the reform began in 1861. According to the new judicial statutes (November 20, 1864), the trial was organized as a competition between a lawyer (defense side) and a prosecutor (prosecution side).

The meetings were held publicly. When considering criminal cases, there were jurors (12 people) representing society (elected from local citizens of all classes). The next lists included men between the ages of 25 and 70, Russians who owned property worth at least 200 rubles, and peasants with experience in the local government system.

Judges were appointed for life and therefore were independent from the administration.

The principle of classlessness of the court was introduced (its decisions did not depend on the class affiliation of the accused). The main judicial instances were the magistrate's court (decided minor criminal and civil cases): magistrates were elected by all classes at county assemblies for a period of three years and were approved by the government), as well as the crown court: district judges, judicial chambers, the government Senate as the supreme court of cassation .

Zemstvo reform (1864).

The reform of local self-government was developed by a commission under the Ministry of Internal Affairs since 1859, chaired by N. A. Milyutin and since 1861 by P. A. Valuev. The administrative bodies of zemstvos were district and provincial assemblies, whose members were called vowels. From the members of the assembly, executive zemstvo bodies were elected - councils consisting of a chairman and several members), as well as commissions for developing local economic issues: collecting state taxes and taxes, caring for health care and public education, etc.

Elections to zemstvos were held once every three years.

Voters were divided into three curia (electoral assemblies): landowning, urban and peasant. To participate in elections for the first two curiae, you had to have a certain property qualification (from 500 rubles and above). Small owners who did not have full qualifications could participate in elections through representatives whom they elected at their congresses.

The number of authorized representatives was equal to the number of full qualifications, which was given by adding the value of the property of small owners.

Elections for the peasant curia were multi-stage: first, candidates were elected, who then selected the required number of vowels from among themselves.

The members of the provincial zemstvo assembly were elected by the district assemblies from among their members.

It was impossible to implement all the tasks assigned to the zemstvos with the help of the vowels alone, so the zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy to work - doctors, teachers, agronomists, etc. - who were called zemstvo employees. Contrary to the expectations of the government, the zemstvos did not confine themselves to solving local economic affairs, but actively participated in the political struggle, becoming the basis of the liberal movement in Russia.

Urban reform(1870).

Its preparation was carried out simultaneously with the zemstvo reform. At its origins were N. A. Milyutin, Yu. F. Samarin and other famous Russian reformers. The basis for city management was the “City Charter” of 1785. The new “City Regulations” were adopted in 1870. City self-government was built on the same principles as zemstvo.

The representative bodies of city self-government were city councils, elected for four years from among city owners - payers of city taxes.

Voters were listed in order of decreasing amount of tax they paid. Then the list was divided into three equal parts, from each of which a third of the deputies (vocals) were elected to the city duma. Persons who did not own property and did not pay city taxes did not participate in the elections. The City Duma elected members of the city council and the mayor (executive bodies of city government).

Military reforms (1862 – 1874).

They were carried out under the leadership of D. A. Milyutin, F. A. Heiden, N. A. Isakov, N. N. Obruchev, E. I. Gotleben participated in the development of military reform projects. After the defeat in the Crimean War and the signing of the shameful Peace of Paris, the government was forced to take a number of measures to improve the army and increase its combat effectiveness:

1) change in the system of leadership of the armed forces (1862 - 1864).

– formation of military districts and strengthening of centralization in the command and control of ground forces; 1865 - creation of the General Staff as the central link in army control; 1868 – reorganization of the War Ministry);

2) rearmament of the army;

3) replenishment of the officer corps with qualified personnel (expansion of the network of military educational institutions, creation of cadet schools in 1863 - 1866);

4) change in tactical techniques (adoption of new military regulations);

5) abolition of the conscription system for staffing the army (1874) and the introduction of universal conscription;

6) reduction in service life (service in the ground forces and navy consisted of active (up to 6 - 7 years) and reserve (3 - 9 years).

Family status (only son) and social status (clergy, scientists), as well as education provided benefits for exemption from military service or a reduction in its term);

7) reorganization of the army (1871) with the allocation of field (active) and local (auxiliary, reserve) troops.

Reforms in public education (1863 – 1864).

During the reign of Alexander II, the number of educational institutions increased significantly, incl. for children from low-income, usually peasant, families. In post-reform Russia, women's education has received widespread development. Women's gymnasiums were opened, at which pedagogical courses were created. For the daughters of clergy, diocesan schools were created to train teachers for primary schools.

In 1878, social activists led by St. Petersburg University professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin achieved the opening of Higher Women's Courses in the capital, equivalent to a university. The same courses were opened in Moscow under the leadership of Professor V.I. Guerrier. The beginning of women's medical education was laid.

Reform in the educational sphere has given rise to a new type of Russian intellectual: widely educated, critically thinking, striving for active social and practical activities.

Censorship reform(1865). A commission chaired by Prince worked on the first draft of the censorship law. D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Public Education (A.

V. Golovnin), and the second draft was drawn up by the new commission of D. A. Obolensky at the Ministry of Internal Affairs (P. A. Valuev). The law was put into effect on September 1, 1865. In two cities of the empire - St. Petersburg and Moscow - the order and conditions for the publication of books and the press partially changed.

Serious scientific books and expensive periodicals could be printed without prior censorship with the permission of the Minister of the Interior. If a “harmful” trend was detected in them, the perpetrators (author, publisher, translator or editor) were prosecuted by the court. A system of administrative penalties was introduced - warnings from the Minister of Internal Affairs with the right to suspend a periodical for up to 6 months or its final ban by the highest decision.

Lecture: Liberal reforms of Alexander II and their historical significance.

(Peasant reform). Serfdom in Russia took such forms that it differed little from slavery; it was condemned by all layers of Russian society.

But the government was able to abolish it only in 1861. In the economic sector there was an increase in the crisis of the landlord economy, based on the forced, inefficient labor of serfs. Peasant unrest increased. The defeat in the Crimean War showed that serfdom was main reason military-technical backwardness. The government has taken the path of social, eco.

and political reforms. According to the peasant reform, peasants received freedom(no ransom) and land allotment(for ransom). The peasant had to pay a quarter of the amount of the land to the landowner. The landowner received the remaining amount from the state, and the peasant repaid it within 49 years; the relationship between peasants and landowners was regulated by “Charter Charters”, peasants could engage in business and move to other classes. The reform prevented mass protests by peasants.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. City government reform. The abolition of serfdom necessitated other bourgeois reforms. On January 1, 1864, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” was published, introducing classless elected local government bodies - zemstvos consisting of administrative and executive bodies. Zemstvos were responsible for public education, for public health, for food supplies, for the quality of roads. This required funds; zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes.

On June 16, 1870, “City Regulations” was published, according to which elected self-government was introduced in cities - city councils. The City Duma elected the city council (mayor). Only residents with property qualifications (owners of houses, trade and industrial establishments) had the right to vote and be elected to the city Duma. City Dumas were under the jurisdiction of the Senate. City reform became a step forward in the organization of city government, it contributed to the development of urban management, industry and trade.

Judicial reform. At the same time as the Zemstvo, the judicial system was also prepared. The jurors now determined only guilt or innocence the defendant the punishment was determined by the judges. A World Court was introduced to deal with minor offenses and civil cases in counties and cities.

Military transformations. The army played an important role in the social and political life of Russia. The need and urgency of military reform was determined by the defeat in the Crimean War- her technical and the tactical backwardness of the army. European powers increased your military potential, which posed a threat to Russia's security. Staffing and management procedures troops, relationships in the army did not match the transformations happening in society.

In 1874, a statute on universal military conscription was issued.. According to the new law all young people aged 14 - 21 were called up, but the government determined the required number of recruits every year, and only this number was chosen by lot from the conscripts. Other reforms. The University Charter of 1863 expanded the autonomy of universities: provided economic and administrative independence, teachers and students participated in resolving issues of internal life.

Financial reform 1862-1866 - the Minister of Finance received the right to manage the country’s financial resources, whose activities were subject to accounting by State Control. In 1860, the State Bank was established, providing loans to trade and industrial enterprises. The construction of a railway network was considered a means of increasing economic power. The import of goods into Russia has increased. The number of trade and industrial enterprises, factories and factories has increased.

Prerequisites and reasons for the reforms of Alexander 2

With the development of technology and the advent of industrial equipment, the need for manual labor increasingly disappeared, but landowners still actively used the labor of peasants, imposing huge taxes on them.

As a result, the peasantry went bankrupt everywhere, widespread strikes and hunger strikes began, which led to a significant decline in serfdom and the income of landowners. The state, in turn, also received less profit from the bankrupt landowners, and the treasury suffered. This situation did not suit either side.

The developing industry also suffered, since due to the widespread enslavement of peasants, there was not enough free labor that could service the machines in factories.

In 1859-1861, peasant revolts and revolutionary sentiments reached their peak.

The situation was also aggravated by the lost Crimean War, which completely undermined the confidence of citizens in the tsar and the government, which showed its complete failure, both economic and military. In such a situation, conversations began about the need to abolish serfdom and new reforms that would help the country get out of the crisis.

The era of great reforms has begun.

The main reforms of Alexander 2

Among the main political reforms of Alexander 2 are:

Peasant reform (1861);
Financial reform (1863);
Educational reform (1863);
Zemstvo reform (1864);
Judicial reform (1864);
Reform of state self-government (1870);
Military reform (1874);

The essence of all the reforms of Alexander 2 was the restructuring of society and the management system and the formation of a new type of state.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II.

One of the most important reforms was the abolition of serfdom in 1861. The reform was prepared for several years and, despite the resistance of the nobility and bourgeoisie, was carried out. As a result of the peasant reform, all peasants were freed from serfdom - along with personal freedom, they also received a small plot of land completely free of charge, on which they could live and work. In addition, a peasant could buy himself an arable plot for a small amount - this contributed quite a lot of money to the state treasury.

In addition, peasants received a number of civil rights: they could make purchase and sale transactions, open commercial and industrial enterprises, and apply for a transfer to another class. They were also freed from administrative and legal dependence on their former landowners.

The Iron Curtain was also lifted, and people could leave the country more freely.

Zemstvo and city reforms created open local government bodies, courts and local councils appeared in cities - this significantly simplified the process of city self-government.

The military reform involved replacing Peter's conscription system with universal conscription.

This allowed for the creation of a larger army that could be mobilized at short notice when needed. The level of military education has also increased due to the growth of military schools and academies.

Along with the development of military academies, other educational institutions began to appear. Thanks to the educational reform, the general level of education in society began to grow rapidly.

In politics, as in all public life, not to move forward means to be thrown back.
Lenin Vladimir Ilyich

Alexander 2 went down in history as a reformer. During his reign, significant changes took place in Russia, the main one of which concerns the solution of the peasant question. In 1861, Alexander II abolished serfdom. Such a radical step was long overdue, but its implementation was associated with a large number of difficulties. The abolition of serfdom required the emperor to carry out other reforms that were supposed to return Russia to a leading position on the world stage. The country has accumulated a huge number of problems that have not been resolved since the era of Alexander 1 and Nicholas 1. The new emperor had to place great emphasis on solving these problems, carrying out largely liberal reforms, since the previous path of conservatism did not lead to positive consequences.

The main reasons for reforming Russia

Alexander 2 came to power in 1855, and he immediately faced an acute problem in carrying out reforms in almost all spheres of state life. The main reasons for the reforms of the era of Alexander 2 are as follows:

Defeat in the Crimean War.
Growing discontent of the people.
Losing economic competition to Western countries.
Progressive entourage of the emperor.

Most of the transformations were carried out in the period 1860 - 1870. They went down in history under the name “liberal reforms of Alexander 2.” Today the word “liberal” often scares people, but in fact, it was during this era that the basic principles of the functioning of the state were laid down, which lasted until the end of the Russian Empire. It is also important to understand here that even though the previous era was called “the apogee of autocracy,” this was flattery. Nicholas 1 reveled in the victory in the Patriotic War and his apparent dominance over European countries. He was afraid to make significant changes in Russia. Therefore, the country actually reached a dead end, and his son Alexander 2 was forced to solve the gigantic problems of the Empire.

What reforms were carried out

We have already said that the main reform of Alexander 2 was the abolition of serfdom. It was this transformation that confronted the country with the need to modernize all other areas. In short, the main changes were as follows.

Financial reform 1860 - 1864. A state bank, zemstvo and commercial banks are created. The activities of banks were mainly aimed at supporting industry. In the last year of reforms, control bodies are created, independent of local authorities, which audit the financial activities of authorities.

Zemstvo reform of 1864. With its help, the problem of attracting the broad masses of the population to solve everyday issues was solved. Elected bodies of zemstvo and local self-government were created.

Judicial reform of 1864. After the reform, the court became more “legal.” Under Alexander 2, jury trials were introduced for the first time, transparency, the ability to bring any person to trial regardless of his position, the independence of the court from local administrations, corporal punishment was abolished, and much more.

Educational reform of 1864. This reform completely changed the system that Nicholas 1 tried to build, who sought to separate the population from knowledge. Alexander 2 promoted the principle of public education, which would be accessible to all classes. For this purpose, new primary schools and gymnasiums were opened. In particular, it was during the Alexander era that women's gymnasiums began to open and women were admitted to the civil service.

Censorship reform of 1865. These changes absolutely supported the previous course. Control continued to be exercised over everything that was published, since revolutionary activities in Russia were extremely active.

Urban reform of 1870. It was mainly used for the improvement of cities, the development of markets, healthcare, education, the establishment of sanitary standards, and so on. Reforms were introduced in 509 cities out of 1,130 in Russia. The reform was not applied to cities located in Poland, Finland and Central Asia.

Military reform of 1874. It was mainly spent on the modernization of weapons, the development of the fleet and the training of personnel. As a result, the Russian army again became one of the leading in the world.

Consequences of reforms

The reforms of Alexander 2 had the following consequences for Russia:

Prospects have been created for building a capitalist model of the economy. The level of state regulation of the economy was reduced in the country, and a free labor market was created. However, the industry was not 100% ready to accept the capitalist model. This required more time.
The foundations for the formation of civil society have been laid. The population received more civil rights and freedoms. This applies to all areas of activity, from education to real freedoms of movement and work.
Strengthening the opposition movement. The bulk of the reforms of Alexander 2 were liberal, so the liberal movements, which were attributed to Nicholas the First, began to gain strength again. It was during this era that the key aspects that led to the events of 1917 were laid down.

Defeat in the Crimean War as a justification for reforms

Russia lost the Crimean War for several reasons:

Lack of communications. Russia is a huge country and moving an army across it is very difficult. To solve this problem, Nicholas 1 began the construction of a railway, but this project was not implemented due to banal corruption. The money intended for the construction of a railway connecting Moscow and the Black Sea region was simply torn apart.
Disagreement in the army. The soldiers and officers did not understand each other. There was a whole gulf between them, both class and educational. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Nicholas 1 demanded severe punishment of soldiers for any offense. This is where the nickname of the Emperor among the soldiers comes from - “Nikolai Palkin”.
Military-technical lag behind Western countries.

Today, many historians say that the scale of the defeat in the Crimean War was simply gigantic, and this is the main factor indicating that Russia needed reforms. This idea is supported and supported also in Western countries. After the capture of Sevastopol, all European publications wrote that autocracy in Russia had outlived its usefulness, and the country needed changes. But the main problem was different. In 1812 Russia won a great victory. This victory created among the emperors the absolute illusion that the Russian army was invincible. And now the Crimean War dispelled this illusion, Western armies demonstrate their superiority in technical terms. All this led to the fact that officials, who pay great attention to opinions from abroad, accepted a national inferiority complex and began to try to convey it to the entire population.

But the truth is that the scale of defeat in the war is extremely overestimated. Of course, the war was lost, but this does not mean that Alexander 2 ruled a weak Empire. It must be remembered that in the Crimean War Russia was opposed by the best and most developed countries of Europe at that time. And despite this, England and its other allies still remember this war and the valor of Russian soldiers with horror.