Problems of parts of speech in French. The system of parts of speech in French
French is the native language of France, but it is also spoken in other countries, and in some it is even the official language. However, pronunciation (and not only) in these countries has great differences and its own characteristics. This fact can be explained by the fact that the language is influenced by the languages \u200b\u200bof the indigenous population, as well as neighbors bordering a particular country.
The purpose of such a property of speech as intelligibility is to convey to the listener some understandable information, and emotionality (expressiveness) is the transmission of information with intonation that determines emotion or mood. Concerning french speech, it can be direct or indirect. The main criterion or property of the indirect is the adjustment of the quoted sentence for different transmitted situations. But the criterion for direct speech is unchanging quoting. The beginning of a quotation is usually indicated by a punctuation dash, and in some cases by a colon. Quote boundaries are marked with quotation marks.
French parts of speech are official and independent. Independent: adjective, pronoun, adverb, numeral, noun and verb; auxiliary: verbal personal pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, auxiliary adverbs and pronominal adjectives. In French nouns are divided into concrete, abstract, singular, collective, inanimate, animate, proper, common nouns, uncountable and countable. All these types of nouns have such signs (the article is their way of expression) as certainty, indefiniteness, number and gender.
With the help of the article, we can express the number and gender of the noun, as well as its determination. The article can be definite or indefinite. For example, a definite article such as "les" expresses the plural, and the article "la" defines the feminine gender.
But pronominal adjectives can also indicate the gender and number of our noun. They are divided into several groups: possessive, demonstrative, indefinite and interrogative.
A generalized idea of the quality and quantity of nouns is given by adjectives of an indefinite pronominal type. In French speech, as well as in other languages, numerals have the following types: simple, compound, fractional, integer, ordinal and quantitative.
Pronouns are divided into relative, possessive, indefinite, demonstrative, personal and interrogative. To give an example, a pronoun such as "cette" has a demonstrative type. Indefinite pronouns are an independent part of speech. Some adjectives (indefinite) can only appear before nouns. Both indefinite pronouns and indefinite adjectives clearly show such a general concept as the quantity and quality of nouns.
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The textbook is addressed to teachers of French in high school. Its purpose is to systematize and generalize certain information on the morphology of the noun and adjective, which are contained in textbooks of different classes, as well as to give them a scientific justification in the light of the latest achievements in the field of Soviet and foreign romance. 1st edition published in 1983.
Examples.
Translate paying particular attention to the gender of the underlined nouns:
1. We study French at school, but I also want to study German and Italian. 2. The curriculum includes algebra, geometry, physics and French. 3. Platinum is a rare metal. 4. On Sundays I go skiing. 5. Russian is the language of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgenev, Tolstoy. 6. They rested under a big birch. 7. The summer was hot, and on Saturdays we went out of town. 8. My uncle teaches mathematics in high school. 9. An apple tree grew near the house. 10. Medicine is an ancient science. 11. Everyone needs to know civil law.
Determine the gender of the underlined nouns:
1. Il peut bien neiger avant decembre. 2. Il donna quelques leçons de géométrie, d'anatomie, de physique et de chimie. 3. Des maîtres d'école, il en faudrait comme des ouvriers. 4. Non, dit Simon. En tant qu "instituteur, je leur enseigne à défendre la paix. 5. Le mariage était décidé pour la fin de l" été. 6. L "automne s'avança dans ses robes de cuivre. 7. Ils savent leurs règles de grammaire et d" algèbre. 8. Il avait joué derriere ces citronniers. 9. Il jouait avec quatre soldats de plomb. 10. Ce n'était qu'une tres simple table de sapin. 11. Fabre venait d'une famille de mecaniciens. (D'apres P. Gamarra).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
From the authors
Introduction
§one. What is the gender of a noun and an adjective?
§2. Does the noun express the gender category?
§3. Why is gender a grammatical category and why does a French noun need it?
§four. How does the adjective respond to the gender of the noun?
§5. Disputes around the category of number of noun and adjective
§6. Why are there so many articles in French?
§7. About some "secrets" of French articles
§eight. When does an article become unnecessary for a noun?
The key to exercise
Literature.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
KSPU im. Tsiolkovsky
Department of Foreign Languages
Course work
Comparison of function word systems
in French and Russian
CONTENT
Introduction
1.Parts of speech
1.1 Parts of speech in Russian
1.2 Parts of speech in French
2. Service parts of speech in Russian
3. Service parts of speech in French
3.1Article
3.2Determinatives
3.3 Verbal pronouns
3.4Prepositions
3.5 Alliances
3.6Particles
4. Comparison of the use of functional words in Russian and French
5.Conclusion
Literature
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this work is a comparative comparison of the systems of functional words in the Russian and French languages, the establishment of the features inherent in these systems, as well as the similarities and differences between them.
In each language, some features are found that are characteristic of all languages of the world (general features), other features that unite them with some other languages, and such features that are characteristic only of this language (specific, individual features). This study discusses general and specific features, inherent in the systems of function words in Russian and French.
This work consists of an introduction, which sets the goals and objectives of the study, the main part and conclusion. First, the structure is described general systems parts of speech in Russian and French. Next, I consider the system of function words separately in Russian and French. These sections describe the specific features of these systems without comparing them with each other. In the next part, each service part of speech of the French language is considered separately, its features, the correspondence of the use of this service part of speech in the languages under consideration. In my work I describe articles, determiners, verbal pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and particles. Next, a direct comparison of the systems of function words is given, analogies of their use are drawn, their functions in languages and the frequency of use of function words in two languages are considered.
In conclusion, the results of the study are summarized, the main common features and differences between the systems of function words in Russian and French are described.
At the origins of typological research in Russia are the works of E.D. Polivanova, L.V. Shcherby, I.I. Meshchaninov.
The comparative-typological study of the French language originated in multilingual Switzerland, where the famous linguist Ch. Bally was the founder of this trend. The comparative study of French and Russian was started by the works of L.V. Shcherba (“Phonetics of the French language” and a number of his articles), K.A. Ganshina, M.N. Peterson and others.
1. PARTS OF SPEECH
In all languages, lexico-grammatical groups of words are distinguished, called parts of speech.
1.1 PARTS OF SPEECH IN VRUSIAN
In Russian, words are divided into 10 parts of speech and, depending on what role they can play in a sentence and how they change, they are included in the following groups:
Group 1 (significant parts of speech) - 6 parts of speech that can be members of the sentence:
- noun,
- verb,
- adverb
- numeral,
- adjective:
- high-quality (they have a full and short form - white-white),
- relative (do not have a short form - silver),
- possessive (answer the question whose? - fox),
- pronoun:
- personal (me, you, etc.)
- interrogative (who?, what?, what?, how much?),
- relative (who, what, how much, which, what, whose),
- indefinite (someone, something, someone, something, someone, something, someone, something, someone, something, several),
- definitive (most, everyone, each, different, other),
- negative (no one, nothing, no one, nothing)
- index (so much, such, so much, that, that, those, this, this, these),
- returnable (oneself),
- possessive (mine, mine, mine, ours, etc.).
Group 2 - 4 parts of speech that cannot be members of a sentence:
- service parts of speech (preposition, conjunctions, particles);
- interjections.
The members of a sentence are words that answer some questions, in a sentence they are connected with each other in pairs, they include significant parts of speech.
1.2. PARTS OF SPEECH IN FRENCH
The composition of parts of speech for different languages is different both due to the peculiarities of the languages themselves, and due to the fact that different researchers distinguish them on the basis of different features.
According to the way the elements of reality are displayed in French, they are distinguished:
- the main (significant) parts of speech - nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs;
- additional parts of speech - pronouns, interjections, function words.
The main parts of speech denote the elements of reality independently and directly. Service parts of speech cannot independently designate elements of reality, they serve to connect the main parts of speech and express various additional meanings.
These common varieties of parts of speech are found in all languages.
There is the following division of the vocabulary of the French language:
1. Significant words that are used in speech as independent members of the sentence:
- nouns,
- Verbs,
- adjectives (with the exception of pronominal adjectives),
- independent pronouns,
- numeral,
- adverb (with the exception of official).
1. Service words - words devoid of lexical significance, which mean:
a) grammatical features of independent words
- article,
- determinants,
- personal verbal pronouns
b) connections and relationships between independent words and sentences
- prepositions,
- unions.
Service words (les mots auxiliaires, ou fonctionnels) serve to form analytical forms of parts of speech, as well as members of a phrase and members of a sentence.
Service parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions and particles), unlike significant parts of speech, do not denote objects, actions, but express grammatical relationships between words, clarify the meaning of the members of the sentence.
In a sentence, the service parts of speech are not its members, since questions cannot be raised to them.
Many independent words in combination with other words perform a service function. For example, in the sentence Onafaittoutelaguerre ensemble the verb faire is a predicate, and in the sentence Elles'estfait racontertoutecettehistoire the same verb plays an auxiliary role.
Relative pronouns and many adverbs in a complex sentence act as conjunctions.
Personal verbal pronouns serve to express the grammatical category of a person in a verb, but at the same time they have important functions in a sentence, being its members (subject, object, nominal part of the predicate).
Independent words can perform many of their functions only with the help of function words. A noun in the subject function should, as a rule, carry an article or a pronominal adjective:
L'eté était froid.
Ma mere était medecin.
A preposition is necessary for a noun to perform many adverbial and attributive functions:
Mon appartement secompose de deux pieces.
Je vais à l'Université.
The division of words into independent and auxiliary ones is thus not based on some permanent features, but on the function of words in combination with other words. These include prepositions. Conjunctions, articles, pronominal adjectives replacing the article.
Service words
Both languages have the following categories of function words:
French language Russian language
1. article + -
2.determinatives + -
3.functional pronouns + -
4.prepositions ++
5.unions++
6.bundles ++
7.particles ++
2. Service parts of speech in Russian
2.1 Prepositions are service parts of speech that clarify the case meanings of nouns, numerals and pronouns. They express various relationships: spatial (in the city, on the street), temporal (in the winter, in the evenings), causal (shivering from the cold, absent from illness).
Suggestions are:
2. non-derivatives - in, on, from, to, for, for, before, with, etc.
3. derivatives - from adverbs (in front, on the contrary, along, except for, about, near, after, etc.).
- from nouns (instead of, in view of, due to, during, in continuation, etc.),
- from verbs (germs): thanks to, including, later, etc.
2.2 Unions - service parts of speech used to connect homogeneous members in a simple sentence and simple sentences in a complex sentence.
1. By morphological composition, unions are divided into simple ones, consisting of one word (and, but, what, if, etc.) and compound ones, consisting of several words (because, because, etc.)
2. By use, unions are of three varieties:
a) Single, used in a sentence once: but, all subordinating.
b) Repetitive: and-and, or-or, either-or, no-no, so-and-so, etc.
c) Double, the components of which are mutually related in use:
- writing (as-so, not only, but also);
- subordinating (if - then, since - then, only - like, etc.).
Coordinating conjunctions (and, also, also, no, no, but, but, but, however, or, or, such and such, etc.) are used to connect homogeneous members and to connect simple sentences into one complex one.
Subordinating conjunctions (what, so that, if, because, since, since, although, despite the fact that, etc.) are used only to link simple sentences into a one-syllable sentence:
-temporary
-causal
- target
-consequences
-terms
- concessions
-comparative
- indicative.
2.3 Particles - service parts of speech, with the help of which the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is talking about, or emphasizes the special shades of the meaning of his speech.
Particles are divided into groups:
1. Modal, expressing the attitude of the speaker to the statement:
a) negative: not, far from, not at all, not at all, not at all;
b) interrogative: whether (l), really, really;
c) intensifying-excretory: neither, same (g), even, after all, exactly, only;
d) emotional (expressing feelings): what the hell!, how!, well, oh, hardly, hardly, etc.
e) index: here, there, this
2.Forming:
- imperative mood of the verb - yes, let, let;
- subjunctive mood of the verb - would;
- indefinite pronouns and adverbs - something, something, something, something;
- reflexive verb - - sya (sya) (for example, I rejoice);
- negative pronouns and adverbs: neither (for example, never, nothing); - - antonyms: not (for example, an enemy).
3. Service parts of speech in French
3.1 Articles are functional words that are a sign of a noun and express the grammatical categories of the noun: its gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular or plural), category of definiteness and indefiniteness.
The article is always placed before the noun.
TYPES OF ARTICLES
1 .Des – plural indefinite article;
2. une - feminine indefinite article singular;
3. Un - the indefinite article of the masculine singular;
4. Les - definite plural article;
- is placed before the surname to designate the family;
5. Le - the definite article of the masculine singular, beginning with a consonant or aspirated h;
6. La - feminine singular definite article, beginning with a consonant or aspirated h;
7. L’ is a truncated article, which is placed before a singular noun that begins with a vowel or h of a mute;
8. Du - article (partial, indefinite) for uncountable nouns male singular, and is also used in many stable verb combinations;
9. Dela - article (partial, indefinite) for uncountable feminine nouns singular;
10. Del’ is the article for uncountable masculine and feminine singular nouns that begin with a vowel or mute h
3.2 Determinatives (noun determiners) are functional words that are used before a noun (or an adjective before a noun), and serve as a means of expressing the gender and number of a noun (1).
The determinants in French include:
- pronominal adjectives (demonstrative and possessive),
- indefinite and interrogative-relative adjectives.
In Russian, determinatives correspond to demonstrative, possessive, indefinite, relatively interrogative pronouns. TYPES OF DETERMINATIVES
1. Demonstrative adjectives serve to indicate the subject, determine the gender and number of the noun, replace the article.
Ce(cet), cette, ces - this, this, these (masculine, feminine, singular, and plural).
2. Possessive adjectives.
French possessive adjectives in Russian correspond to possessive pronouns (mine, yours, ours, etc.), and in Russian there is a pronoun own, denoting belonging to any person, which has no equivalent in French. In addition to the gender and number of the noun, possessive adjectives indicate belonging to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd person. Singular plural masculine feminine gender husband. clan, female genus
1st person mon mine
2nd person tonyour
3rd person son him
ma my
ta yours
sa her own
mes mine
tes yours
ses his, her, his
1st person notre ours, ours
2nd person votre yours, yours
3rd person leur them
nos our
vos your
leurs them
3. Indefinite adjectives are placed before the noun, replace the article.
Tout (each, everyone), Tout le (all), toute la (all), tous (all), toutes ces (all of these), tout les (each), tout un (whole),
Chaque - each, each, anyone, anyone,
Quelques, plusieuts - a few, a lot
Before feminine nouns beginning with a vowel or h, masculine possessive adjectives (mon, ton, son) are used.
3.3. Verbal pronouns are functional words used with a verb as a subject and an object.
Verbal pronouns in French correspond to personal pronouns in Russian. Personal pronouns in French are represented by stressed and unstressed pronouns. Stressed pronouns are used independently, personal unstressed pronouns (verbal pronouns) are used only with conjugated verbs. Personal stressed pronouns
Personal unstressed pronouns
(verbal pronouns) Sujet Complement direct
my i nous we
toi you vous you
luion eux they
elle she elles they
je i nous we
tu you vous you
il he ils they
elle she elles they
me nous us
te you vous you
le his les them
la her
On - the indefinite personal pronoun on is used as a verbal pronoun with a verb in the 3rd person singular.
En
3.4 Prepositions are function words that serve to express the connection between independent words. TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS
a - expresses spatial relations (locations, directions), indicates the place and direction: to, at, in, and also introduces an indirect object corresponding to the Russian dative case; placed before city names; masculine country names beginning with a consonant; when transferring direction after the verb aller,
Chez - y, k (only with names of faces),
de - expresses relations corresponding to the Russian genitive case: conveys the relation of belonging (de Sergey's family); used in the adjective in a superlative degree (the most diligent of), used in the passive voice, used after verbs expressing feelings (respect, love, suffer, etc.); after words expressing quantity (many, kilogram, etc.); before an adjective with a plural noun (new quarters); after all quantitative nouns (thousand inhabitants); before the infinitive in indirect speech;
d' is a truncated form of de before words beginning with a vowel,
en - used with the names of the months, indicates the place and direction: used with the names of countries of the feminine and masculine gender, starting with a vowel, with nouns - designations of time (in summer, on vacation, etc.); included in nominal combinations (in white, black),
pour– to, into (direction transfers after the verb partir),
sue - on (when designating a place), oh, on, on (when transmitting speech, thought, text),
depuis- since; from the moment, now, during,
pendant - during, during, bye,
ilya- now, ago,
dans - through (combined with present and future tense),
- to express approximate (about thirty);
apres- later, through (combined with the past tense),
plustard- later (applies regardless of the tense of the verb),
par- is used in the passive voice.
Jusque - do, expresses temporal and spatial relations, often used in combination with other prepositions.
3.5 Unions - service words that serve to connect the members of the proposal. TYPES OF UNIONS
que- what (introduces an additional subordinate clause, used in indirect speech);
- used as part of comparative turns with adverbs (plus ... que - more ... than, moins ... que - less than, aussi ... que - quickly ... how);
qu' - a truncated union that is used before words that begin with a vowel or mute;
comme - used before words denoting profession, rank, position;
- since, since (in sentences, when the subordinate clause of the cause precedes the main one);
- how, to what extent (in exclamatory sentences);
car - since, since (in sentences when the subordinate clause of the cause follows the main one),
puisque - since, since (applies regardless of the place of the clause in the sentence);
et - in numerals 21, 31.41, 51, 61 before the word un;
ni - neither (connects homogeneous nouns), 3.6 Particles
PARTICLE SPECIES
Est-ceque - is it, whether or is omitted when translating in interrogative sentences;
Ne - not (expresses negation in combination with other negative words, placed before the verb: ne...pas - not, ne...jamais - never; ne...plus, ne...jamais - no more);
- the particle ne as part of the restrictive phrase Ne...que, which is translated only, only;
4. Comparison of service parts of speech in Russian and French
An important feature In French, in comparison with Russian, is the presence of words that combine the features of functional words and pronouns - functional pronouns (for example, je, ce,), determinatives (such as mon, chaque).
In French, there are three categories of functional words that are absent in Russian: articles, determinatives that form a noun phrase in a sentence, functional pronouns that form a verb group in a sentence, acting as syntactic substitute words. Determinatives and verbal pronouns are especially peculiar in French; such function words exist in some other languages (for example, English my; Spanish me, te, se; mi, tu, su), but not in any other European language they did not reach such a variety as in French.
Prepositions are used differently in both languages.
Case forms in Russian make it possible in many cases to do without prepositions: to answer our teacher - repondreà not reprofesseur; to write with a pen - ecrireaustylo. On the other hand, the tendency to use a transitive construction where Russian refers to adverbial or indirect-objective construction reduces the use of prepositions in this language compared to Russian: cross the street - traverserlarue; she lost her book, elleaperdusonlivre.
In the flow of speech in French, function words are used twice as often as in Russian. These data reflect the general analytical tendencies of the French language (the expression of grammatical meanings outside the word using auxiliary elements).
In all languages, lexico-grammatical groups of words are distinguished, called parts of speech. However, the inventory of parts of speech for different languages is different both due to the peculiarities of the languages themselves, and due to the fact that different researchers distinguish them on the basis of various features.
According to the way the elements of reality are displayed, the main parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and additional parts (interjections, pronouns, function words) are distinguished. Service words are deprived of the ability to independently designate elements of reality and serve to connect other elements of the statement and express various additional meanings. Interjections designate the phenomena of reality in an undivided form. Therefore, they cannot be ordinary members of a sentence, the structure of which is based precisely on the dismembered representation of the described reality.
Thus, additional parts of speech are opposed to the main ones in one of the ways of display:
parts of speech the word reflects reality directly independently dissected
basic + + +
pronouns - + +
service + - +
the words
interjections + + -
These common varieties of parts of speech are found in all languages. The main parts of speech, pronouns and interjections are combined into a group of significant parts of speech, opposed to functional words. An important feature of the French language in comparison with Russian is the presence of a category of words that combine the features of functional words and pronouns (functional pronouns like je, ce; determiners like mon, chaque).
Article
Determination (definiteness/uncertainty) is associated with the degree of awareness of the speakers about the subject of the conversation and is inherent in the entire statement as a whole. In principle, it can be formally expressed in the following ways:
A) syntactically - word order;
B) in the nominal group: lexically - determinatives and definitions; morphologically - with special morphemes (for example, post-positive articles in Romanian and Bulgarian);
C) in the verb group: lexically - in definitions of the verb, in particular in adverbs; morphologically - special morphemes (object conjugation in some languages).
In French, determinations can be spoken of as a grammatical category, since it is regularly expressed by a special function word - the article, which forms the nominal group in the sentence.
A substance can be characterized from a qualitative or quantitative side, therefore, the category of determination expressed by the French article has two aspects: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative determination (definiteness/uncertainty) concerns counted nouns and is expressed by the opposition of the articles le\un. Quantitative determination (its core is the value of totality and partitivity, partiality) is characteristic of uncountable real names and is expressed by the opposition of marticles le\du. Other non-countable nouns - singular, abstract and singular proper - determiners by their very meaning and are used with or without the definite article (le soleil, la beaute,
La Russie, Paris). The use of articles with an "inappropriate" group of words indicates a change in the meaning of the word or some stylistic shade. The article des expresses both qualitative and quantitative uncertainty: des fleurs can mean both "some flowers" and "some flowers".
There is no article in the Russian language. The meanings expressed by it may not be conveyed in the Russian sentence by special means, if the situation itself clearly enough shows the definiteness or indefiniteness of the subject. However, where appropriate, certainty/uncertainty values are expressed by grammatical means(word order) and in the nominal group - lexical means (word order) and in the nominal group - lexical means (pronouns, adjectives). In addition, sometimes indefiniteness can also be expressed in the verbal group (verb prefixes, adverbs), in connection with which transpositions are found when comparing: the indefiniteness expressed in the French sentence in the noun phrase is expressed in Russian in the verb (adverb, verb form).
Qualitative determination
To express the meanings of French articles in their primary function in Russian, the following basic means are used:
A) word order. Definiteness in Russian is expressed by the preposition of the subject, indeterminacy - by its postposition in relation to the verb, according to the formulas:
French language Russian language
sle + v s + v
sun + v v + s
Un garson, assis sur le toit, A boy was sitting on the roof and
agitait ledrapeau. waved the flag.
Lebonhommeles regardait
venir du coin de l'oeil. (LQ) approaching Abel and Valeria.
This correspondence is violated in two cases:
- 1. If in the Russian text a noun is accompanied by an indefinite pronoun or definitions indicating the unusualness of the subject (formula: French sun + v ó Russian s + v).
A côte, unhommehaut, lugubre
attendait sa femme. my man was waiting for his wife.
- 2. If the sentence describes the event in an undivided way, acting as a monorheme (formula: French sle + v ó Russian v + s)
Le jour ensoleilléselevait.(LQ) It was a sunny day.
B) Definitions of a noun. The meaning of certainty is expressed by pronouns: this, that (most), own, all (these); numerals both, three ..., adjectives given, present.
The meaning of uncertainty is expressed by indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, etc.; such and such, someone, numeral one (of), adjective unknown, and vice versa, definite, special, whole.
Thus, when moving from one language to another, two degrees of specification of determinants (determinatives) with a noun are found:
Russian language 0
French le un
This Russian language, that one, some mine, some, etc.
The Russian missing ("zero") determiner in the French text may correspond to the articles le and un, in a general form expressing certainty or indefiniteness, in turn, these general determiners in the Russian text may correspond to determiners of a more specific meaning. Here are some examples of matches:
Definite article
Et soudain, une ombre d'homme se dressa sur cette lisière eclairee du bois. La tete depassait les arbres, se perdait dans le siel.
And suddenly, on this illuminated edge of the forest, the shadow of a man rose. His head was higher than the trees and was lost in the sky.
In Russian translations, the meaning of uncertainty is expressed by the postposition of the subject, the meaning of certainty is conveyed by a possessive or demonstrative pronoun. So elements of different levels (syntax, vocabulary) are used to express the meanings conveyed by French functional words.
Maintenant le savant travaille à la
laboratoire
Now this scientist works in
laboratories.
Indefinite article
Unparvenu ne dans le pays obtint
du maftre Chesnel qu'il parlàt de
mariage en sa faveur. (BC)
Il s'apercut que I'auvent une panacarte était collée. (MT)
A certain upstart obtained from Shenel that he conveyed his marriage proposal.
He saw that some kind of ticket was pasted under the awning.
B) transposition. Indefiniteness in Russian phrases is expressed by indefinite adverbs (somehow, somewhere, some, etc.), which functionally correspond to indefinite articles.
Main un grand bruit éciata soudant tout pres d'eux. (MT)
Unenuit, ils furent reveitles par le
bruit d'un cheval.(FB)
Suddenly, there was a noise somewhere near them.
One night they were awakened by the sound of a horse.
The indefinite article in the plural can express, as noted above, qualitative and quantitative uncertainty. In the Russian text, the way of expression is chosen depending on which aspect of uncertainty is emphasized.
Des hommes étaent assis sur un banc.
Some people were sitting on a bench.
Here, qualitative uncertainty is expressed in Russian by the indefinite pronoun some. Quantitatively, uncertainty is more often manifested with words indicating the number, measure (distance, time, price, etc.) and is denoted by the adjectives several, many, etc.
Des heures durent se passer.
C'etait le choc en retour de la
défaite, du tonnerre qui avait éclaté tres loin, a des lieues.
It must have been a few hours.
It was the echo of defeat, the echo of thunder, far, far away, miles away.
Prepositions
The following discrepancies are noted between French and Russian prepositions:
1. In the system of French prepositions, the meanings of direction (“where”) and location (“where”), differentiated in Russian by prepositional case forms (cf. etc.). French combinations dans la maison, à la maison, etc. Can indicate location and movement. The two meanings do not differ in French dialects either; cf. là bas there and there, ici here and there; where and where. Direction and location differ in the statement only with the help of verbs: aller à Moscou - to go to Moscow, vivre à Moscou - to live in Moscow.
2. In French, opposite meanings are less differentiated than in Russian. In the system of local prepositions, the meanings “where”, “where” and “from where” can coincide. For example: pour into a glass - boire dansun verre. When expressing object relations, the preposition à denotes both approach and removal (Russian to someone, and from someone, to someone), for example: donner qch à qn - to give something. to someone, prendre qch à qn - to take something. from someone, dire qch à qn - to say something. to someone, cacher qch à qn - to hide something. from someone
3. In each language, prepositions are distinguished that reach a high degree of abstraction and, losing their own local meaning, are used to express generalized object relations. In Russian, in figurative functions, the prepositions v, na, s, po are especially often used. When a noun denotes an unreal place of action, but an occupation or circumstance, the preposition is used for: work in a factory, go hunting, stand in the cold, and in reverse actions - with: come from hunting, from frost. The preposition po is one of the most vague in its semantics. In French, the prepositions de, à, en, sur, par have reached the highest grammatization. The preposition à corresponds to Russian in the above cases: travailler àIt is precisely with the grammatical use of prepositions that interlingual discrepancies are especially common; cf .: by invitation - surl'invitation, but by example - àl'exe, ple, etc. P.
In nominal phrases, the preposition de can abstractly express any relationship for which the Russian language uses various prepositions: son arrivée deParis - his arrival from Paris, le retour dufront - return from the front, une lettre dePierre - a letter from Pierre, son voyage deKon-Tiki - trip to Kon-Tiki, la route deParis - the road to (to) Paris, un livre dechimie - a book on chemistry, préparatifs duvoyage - preparations for the trip. The Russian language retains the preposition used in the verb combination; cf .: prepare for a trip, travel to Kon-Tiki, the road leads to Paris; go to Moscow, etc. In French, when moving from a verb combination to a nominal one, the means of communication is often generalized, instead of various prepositions, the most abstract preposition de is used.
4. In connection with the grammatization of prepositions that lose eigenvalue, in French, more often than in Russian, the “reinforcement” of the preposition is used, that is, the use to express specific meanings complex prepositions, including significant words: à destination de, à l’intention de (=à, pour); à l’aide de, plein de (=avec); du fond de, du dedans de, du haut de, à partir de, de la part de, de la bouche de (=de), etc. n. For example:
Qui me parle ainsi,à Who shouts to me from the cabriolet?
Pleinspourmons, du haut
de son cabriolet?
The use of a significant word in a semi-functional function allows you to connect two other words if morphological means or auxiliary words turn out to be insufficient. Such semi-functional words usually either have a very broad categorical meaning (for example, plein de), or are semantically redundant, that is, they repeat one of the words of the phrase, do not add anything new to the information of the statement (for example, in coiffé d'un béret, the concept of "headdress" is expressed twice: in participle and noun). When translated into another language, they may not be reproduced: their function is performed by a function word or morphological means (un visage plein de rides - a wrinkled face, les mains pleines d'encre - hands in ink).
The use of desemantizable words to express connection is common to both, but in French it is used more often due to the lack of morphological means and grammatization of prepositions, for example:
Le dernier aide de campétait parti pour rapporter des ordres.
Ces paroles privées de sens l'irritaient extremement.
Une belle Jeune femme coiffée d'un
chapeau de paille et vetue d'une robe de foulard écru.
The last adjutant galloped for orders.
These meaningless words annoyed him greatly.
Young beautiful woman in a straw hat and a dress made of
unbleached foulard.
Especially often in French texts, the following words are used in such a linking function: plein de, vide de, riche en, pauvre de, couvert de, muni de, coifféde, rempli de, changé de, porteur de, etc.
On the contrary, in Russian texts, one has to resort to a similar device to convey the relations expressed by the preposition de.
(in brackets - more rare or debatable cases)
| N | V | A | Adv | |
| N | 1. N+pr+N (N+N) | 1. N+Vf N+pr+Inf N+Part (N+pr+Part) | 3.N+A (N+pr+ A) | 4. N + pr + Adv (N + Adv) |
| V | 5.V+N V+pr+N | 6. V+Inf V+pr+Inf V+Gér V+Part | 7.V+A V+pr+A | 8-V+Adv V+pr+Adv |
| BUT | 9.A+pr+N (A+N) | 10.A+pr+Inf | ll.(A+A) | 12.A+Adv |
| Adv | 13. Adv+pr+N | 14.Adv+pi+Inf) | 15.– | 16.Adv+Adv (Adv + pr + Adv) |
1. N+N. The main type of connection is prepositional; la maison du père; une montre en or. More rare - unpredictable:
ville = dortoir; une table acajou. Oi tends to move into a combination of the type N +BUT(adjectivation of the second
component).
2. N+Vf(with personal form of the verb): Pierre lit. This combination forms a predicative link. The non-predicative SS is formed with the infinitive (prepositional): lajoie de vivre; with participle (incomplete, unprepositional): Un homme lisant (son journal); with part. passé possible prepositional SS: une heure (de) perdue.
3. N+A. The main type is unprepositional: La RéPIIblique française; the prepositional SS is rarely used: un moment (de) libre.
4. N+Adv. The main type is prepositional: les gens d "ici. An unprepositional SS is possible with adjectivation Adv(le temps jadis, un homme debout).
5. V+N. Both constructions are common: écrire une lettre; jouer du piano.
6. V+V. Perhaps with a dependent infinitive, gerund, participle: vouloir partir; essayer de comprendre; manger en lisant; jouer serré (limited type).
7. V+A. Both constructions are possible: devenir heureux; dormir tranquille; accuser à faux; peindre en vert.
8. V + Adv. Free design:marcher vite; prepositional: venir de loin (less often).
9.A+ N. The main type is prepositional: rouge de honte, large d "épaules. The non-prepositional type is semantically limited, applies only to the expression of color: bleu pétrole. Here BUT undergoes substantivation, as evidenced by its inconsistency with N: une robe bleu petrole. It is assumed that this construction is based on the structure une robe d "un bleu de pétrole. Due to the omission of prepositions, the whole combination is adjectivized, inside it bleu turns into N, a petrole - in BUT.
10.BUT+ v. Possible only with the infinitive (prepositional connection): incapable de comprendre; prêt a partir.
11.A+ A. It occurs in two types of combinations: a) bleu clair (when designating a color). Here bleu is substantivized (from d "un bleu clair); b) fraîches écloses - phraseologically limited SS, a relic of former norms. First BUT tends to adverbialize, which is reflected in cases of disagreement: une chose fin prête.
12.A+Adv. tres grand; toujours gai; difficilement traduisible.
13. Adv+N. Prepositional construction: peu de temps, loin de la maison (only with relative and quantitative Adv).
14. Adv+V. Phraseological SS with an infinitive: loin de faire qch.
15. Adv +A– not implemented.
16. Adv + Adv. Both constructions are possible: trop tôt, loin d "ici the prepositional construction is relatively rare).
From the review of the combined potencies of the CR, the following conclusions can be drawn:
a) out of 16 theoretically possible combinations, 15 are realized;
b) each part of speech is characterized by its distribution, and the main distribution is expressed by primary unprepositional connections (there are eight of them).
Distribution formulas make it possible to distinguish parts of speech if their own morphological features are not sufficiently expressed;
c) secondary non-prepositional constructions, formed as a result of the omission of a preposition or rethinking of a phrase, lead to morphological fuzziness of the components, their potential transition to another CR. There are three such phrases: N → N, A->A,A->N,
d) prepositional combinations are numerous and varied, which indicates analyticity in syntax. Their functions in the language:
- differentiating: they form constructions that act as structural and semantic variants of non-prepositional combinations: N→A: une heure libre, une
heure de libre; V→Inf: vouloir partir, decider de partir; V→N: toucher le but, toucher au but; V → A: peindre en rouge, devenir rouge; Adv → Adv: beaucoup loin, loin d "ici;
- transposing: they allow you to combine parts of speech that are usually not combined without a preposition, as well as turn a dependent CR into a dominant one: Adv + prep. + N(peu de temps); Adv + prep. +Ins(loin de faire qch); A+ prep. + N(rouge de honte); A+ prep. +Inf(facile à dire).
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I. Issues for discussion:
1. Features of the analyticism of the French language.
2. Oral and written forms of speech.
3. Parts of speech in French.
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II. Lecture summary
1. As noted above, the French language is one of the analytical ones: it has complex grammatical forms; grammatical categories and relations are expressed out of the word ; the word itself tends to be immutable. But in both these aspects, the French language has its own characteristics.
1.1. Analytical grammatical forms have reached a high degree of cohesion and compression in French. So, when the subject is inverted inside a complex form, only a functional pronoun can be included, but not a significant subject, as, for example, in English, cf .: Has Peter read this book? or in German, cf.: Hat Peter dieses Buch gelesen? , where parts of a complex form are generally spaced at different ends of the sentence. In German auxiliary can stand behind the sacrament, cf.: ...dass er dieses Buch gelesen hat . In English and Russian, the auxiliary verb can be used separately, as if replacing the entire form, cf.: - You're gonna eat? - Yes, will.
1.2.
The French language has its own characteristics in the field of expressing grammatical categories in a sentence. The word itself, taken out of context, expresses only an abstract concept: table, parler. When a word is included in speech and correlated with a specific designated reality, the meaning of the word is specified, limited. This translation of a word from an abstract sphere into a concrete speech sphere is called updating. The means of actualization are usually morphemes, as well as the connection itself. given word with others in a sentence. The specifics of the French language
Is the presence and wide use it contains special service words-actualizers. For nouns, these are articles and other determiners, for the verb, personal verbal pronouns ( je, tu, il etc.) In most cases, the name and the verb are included in the sentence in combination with these actualizers, which, together with the significant word, form a close syntactic unity, which S. Bally called the "syntactic molecule". Thus, often the French word does not enter the sentence directly, but is surrounded by ambiguous words, forming a certain syntactic group. Often the expression of a grammatical category (gender and number for a noun, person and number for a verb) is transferred from a word to a syntactic group. In combination une belle enfant gender in oral speech is expressed only by the article, in d'excellents amis gender and number are expressed in the form [ z ] in liaison. Determinatives and verbal pronouns closely merge with the significant word. The nature of these actualizers is one of the important problems of French grammar. So, S. Bally, for example, considers them to be separable morphemes. Thus, the inflectional conjugation is restored in the verb ( j' aime, tu aimes, il aim), but with the help of inflection before the verb. However, there are good reasons to see in the verbal pronouns not a part of the word, but separate functional words. The "syntactic molecule" has not yet turned into a grammatical form. It is "halfway" between a free phrase and an analytical morphological form. But undoubtedly, Ch. Bally is right when he says that on the basis of analyticism in French, signs of a new synthetism are formed at the next round of the spiral of language development.
2. One of the structural features of the French language is a deep divergence in the morphology of oral and written speech, which is most evident in the expression of the categories of person, number and gender. The main aspects of these discrepancies are:
a) Spoken language shows stronger tendencies towards analyticism than written language. Many morphological indicators are eliminated in oral speech. So, very often the plural is not expressed in any way in oral speech, cf .: Leur fils court dans le jardin and Leurs fils current dans le jardin. Wed also in adjective system There are 4 types of adjectives in French according to the gender form: 1)
one ending in both oral and written speech: jeune, facile etc.; 2)
one ending in oral speech and two endings in writing:
noir-noire; 3) two endings in both oral and written speech: vert-verte, grand-grand;4) two endings in oral speech and three in writing: beau-bel-belle.
In the verb system: in written French, 45 forms would have to be distinguished (6 meanings of a person in présent, imparfait, passé simple, futur simple, conditionnel présent, subjonctif présent and subjonctif imparfait + three forms of impératif), and in oral - 33 forms (due to exclusion from spoken language passé simple and subjonctif imparfait). In reality, the following number of forms differ:
| Verbs | fr. writing (45 values) | fr. oral (33 values) |
| I gr. parler | 33 | 10 |
| II gr. finir | 27 | 12 |
| III gr. sortir | 34 | 11 |
| faire | 37 | 15 |
| avoir | 39 | 14 |
| être | 38 | 16 |
b) The same words and categories receive different ways of grammatical expression in two forms of speech:
Liaison has a special influence on the morphology of oral speech. First, it makes the form of the grammatical expression unstable. In written language -s (-x) as a plural indicator is a regular category mark. In oral speech, with liaison [z], it can be pronounced or disappear depending on various conditions. Moreover, thanks to liaison, there was even a potential plural prefix (pre-agglutination), cf.: les - [z] - amis. Second, liaison breaks the concurrency between form and meaning. In written speech, the forms of adjectives correspond to the meaning of gender: petit (m) – petite (f). AT
oral speech, due to liason, this correspondence is violated: - , where the same form can refer to both genders.
All these facts testify to the weakening of the sign function of morphological indicators in French oral speech, which is freed from the regular designation of many morphological categories.
3. Parts of speech in French are distinguished on the basis of two overlapping features: display method and the nature of the elements reflected in the meaning of the word.
By display method elements of reality differ main parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb, adverb, numeral) and additional(interjections, pronouns, function words). The main parts of speech designate the elements of reality directly, independently and dissected. Additional parts of speech lack one of these three features. The main parts of speech and interjections are combined into a group of significant parts of speech, which opposes functional words. A structural feature of the French language is the presence of categories of words that combine the features of function words and significant ones (functional pronouns je, tu, il..., ce, type determinants mon, ton, son etc. , ce, cette, ces etc ., chaque). By the nature of the displayed elements distinguish between noun, adjective, verb, adverb. Thus, any sentence describes an event, a segment of reality in such a way that a certain process sign, action or relation is attributed to a certain static substance. These two basic elements of reality correspond to two main parts of speech: a noun that names a substance, and a verb that names the processes associated with the substance. Both substances and processes can receive characteristics that are denoted dependent parts of speech: adjective, numeral and adverb.
The two marked features intersect: nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs can be found not only among the main parts of speech, but also among pronouns, where pronominal nouns can be found ( moi, toi etc.), pronominal adjectives ( ce, cette, mon, ton etc.), pronominal adverbs ( en,y), substitute verb ( faire). Also among the service words there are substantive elements ( ce), adjective (articles), adverbial ( a côte de) and verbal (linking verb être).
Main parts of speech - the name and the verb - differ in all languages of the world. As for dependent parts of speech, then their distinction is not necessary, they can merge with each other or with one of the main parts of speech, and therefore the following systems of parts of speech are possible:
I. Four-term (this system is characteristic of the French and Russian languages):
II. Trinomial (Danish, where adverb and adjective are the same in the same category)
III. Binary, in which the dependent parts of speech (Adj and Adv) can be adjacent to the main ones. Options:
a) N (Adj., Adv.) ---- V: the nominal part of speech, which includes analogues of the adjective and adverb, is opposed to the verb (Arabic);
b) N ---- V(Adj., Adv.): adjective and adverb do not differ from the verb (African Yoruba);
c) N (Adj.) ---- V (Adv.): the adjective merges with the noun, the adverb with the verb (Turkic languages).
4. Grammar category
is a unity of form and content. In terms of content, a grammatical category is an opposition of at least two categorical meanings. In terms of form, a grammatical category represents a set of formal means of expressing these categorical meanings. The division of grammar into morphology and syntax implies the presence of morphological and syntactic categories in the language. In general, the grammatical system of the French language is not complicated: the number of categories does not exceed ten: gender, number, determination, degrees of comparison, person, tense, aspect, mood, voice. 4.1. Genus category expressed in nouns, adjectives, some pronouns, determinatives and in the verb with the agreement participe passé in analytical forms. 4.1.1.
At nouns
gender meaning in french
associated with the animation of the objects denoted by the noun.
4.1.1.1. At animated For nouns, the category is semantic, significant, since it reflects gender differences. The gender of the object is found to match the gender of the noun denoting it, although there are exceptions: une ordonnance - orderly; une sentinelle - hourly; une-estafette- purpose. In its primary semantic function, the opposition of generic forms in animate nouns means:
a) persons of different sexes in the names of people according to their occupations ( lecturer-lectrice), professions ( instituteur-institutrice) qualities and features ( bavard-bavarde), nationality ( Espagnole - Espagnole);
b) in more rare cases, gender forms distinguish between spouses (générale general's wife). Sometimes the form genus combines both meanings: boulangère baker's wife and bakery owner;
in) in animal names, the genus distinguishes male and female ( tigre - tigresse).
In the presence of opposition of forms of the gender, the unmarked form is the form of the m. gender: it is this form that is used whenever the gender of the object is not specifically distinguished and the word is used in a generalizing (generalizing) function. Neutralization occurs more often when it comes to men and women at the same time: Les instituteurs d "une ecole communale(= hommes et femmes), in the function of a predicate or application: Une femme maître de ses réflexes.
In animal names, neutralization is expressed by using the m. genus form as a general designation: le lievre(un lievre - une hase); the forms of kind (rare case): l "oie(cf.: un jars - une oie); or, finally, a special notation: le porc(cf.: le verrat-la traie).
Semantic transposition of gender forms. The use of forms of one gender instead of another when designating a person is rare, for example, when using the words of the m. gender in relation to a woman as words of sympathy: mon petit, mon chat. The transposition of the form includes cases of using the words g. gender to denote a male profession: une estafette, une sentinelle.
Distinctive function. The masculine and feminine forms referring to persons may differ in meaning (in addition to indicating the gender of the person). The words compagnon - compagne, maître - maîtresse, courtisan - courtisane and others coincide in some meanings (differing only in the indication of gender), in others - significantly
Disperse. In the latter case, the pair should be considered not as two forms of the same person of the word, but as two different words or meanings of the word.
4.1.1.2. At inanimate nouns, the gender is insignificant, therefore, neutralization as an expression of a semantic generalization is not characteristic of them. However, the masculine form appears here as unmarked. This manifests itself:
a) in common use: in the dictionary and in the text, the words of the m. gender (inanimate) are more numerous (up to 60%);
b) in agreement: when combined N masculine and feminine, the general adjective takes the form of the m. gender: un chapeau et une robe demodes;
in) when substantiating: N, formed by substantivation with the ellipsis of the defined, usually retain the gender of the omitted defined word: une station centrale une centrale; un animal quadrupède un quadrupède. However, if N obtained as a result of direct transposition, it takes on a masculine form: for example, in words formed from adjectives and denoting abstract concepts: le beau; when substantiating verbs: le toucher, un sauve qui peut.
Distinctive function. The gender form of inanimate names may be related to the difference in the meaning of the word:
a) genus classifies N in a semantic sense; for example, the names of fruit trees are masculine ( pommier), car brands - feminine ( une Renault), car names are feminine ( decoupeuse), mechanisms - masculine ( decoupeur);
b) name meanings reflect potential semes
gender categories. With the main meaning of the real gender
(gender difference) associated secondary values, such as size. Sometimes masculine and feminine words denote similar objects that differ in size: savon - savonnette;
in) gender distinguishes homonyms (more than 100 pairs), for example:
le/la livre, le/la page.
In general linguistics, the opinion was expressed that masculine words denote primary objects, and feminine words denote secondary concepts. French to a certain extent
confirms this observation. Derived names - the names of actions, qualities, abstract and collective concepts - are mainly formed using feminine suffixes: -tion, -aison, -eur, -erie, -aille, -esse, -ise, -ude, -té, -ade, -ée, -aie, -aine , etc. Of the masculine suffixes, one can note: -âge, -ment, -is, -isme, -at.
4.1.2. At adjectives the category of gender is asemantic and has a purely formal, conciliatory character, since they receive the gender form in agreement with the noun they define. In some cases, the adjective itself indicates the gender of the person:
a) with genderless pronouns: Je suis heureuse; On est belle aujourd "hui; Cela vous rend malheureuse ;
b) with mutual nouns: notre nouvelle eleve;
in) With verb forms: Pour être belle, il faut souffrir; Soyez attentions (mesdemoiselles).
The ways of forming the feminine gender of adjectives and nouns are the same. In general, the category of gender in French adjectives is expressed less clearly and consistently than in other languages, where they have a gender form. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that the clarity of gender forms decreases as the transition from the written to the oral form of the literary language and from the latter to the vernacular ( cm. also above p. 41 ).
4.1.3. At pronouns the category of gender depends on their substantivity, i.e. pronouns that indicate not only the subject do not distinguish gender ( ce, cela, ça). The category of gender is most consistently expressed in personal pronouns of the 3rd person, in possessive, subject demonstrative ( il-elle; ils-elles; le mien - la mienne; celui – celle). Relatives have only complex ( lequel – laquelle) have forms of both genders, and the most common - qui, que, dont- do not distinguish gender.
4.1.4. At determinants, which define a noun, the gender category is expressed regularly: un - une; le-la; ce-cette; mon-ma; quel-quelle.
4.1.5. In system verb gender in French is:
a) only at the participe passé ( une lettre lu e ) ;
b) in the analytical passive ( elle foot invite e ) ;
in) in personal forms of the active voice when conjugated with the verb être ( elle est allé e ), and when conjugated with the verb avoir - only with the preposition of the direct object ( la lettre qu'il a lu e ).
In general, it should be noted that the gender forms in French are very irregular. However, variability in the gender of many high-frequency words ( le/la, ce/cette, petit, grand, bon etc.) contributes to the vitality of this category in the language.
4.2. Number category expressed in the same classes of words as the gender, but plus the verb in conjugation. In written speech, it is expressed quite regularly, but in oral speech it becomes even less regular than the gender category and is supported by determinatives ( le/les, ce/ces) and liaison.
At adjectives this category, like the genus, is asemantic. With the exception of the words –al (normal-normaux) the number expression is not related to the gender of the adjective . However, in the adjective system, number plays a greater role than gender: if an adjective has a gender form, then it also has a number form, but some adjectives change in number without changing in gender: des gens chics; uniformes kakis; des gens snobs.
At verbs it is expressed more often in oral speech, cf .: je parle - nous parlons; il viendra - ils viendront. The category of number is semantically related to the meaning of uncountability (expressed by the article du), so that its theoretical understanding is one of the most difficult issues of theoretical grammar.
4.4. Comparison degree category characteristic of adjectives and adverbs and is expressed almost exclusively in an analytical way ( plus grand), which gives grounds for excluding it from the number of morphological categories.
4.5. Person category available for some classes of pronouns and verbs. In the verb, this category is expressed in two ways: inflections in the verb and connection with the verbal pronoun or significant subject: Parlez! Il viendra. Les enfants viendront.
a) absolute time (plan of the present, past and future);
b) temporal correlation (simultaneity, precedence, following);
in) unlimited / limited time of action in terms of the past (imparfait / passé composé);
G) relevance / irrelevance of the action in terms of the past (passé composé / passé simple);
e) time interval (immediate forms).
4.7. view category in French does not have such definite means of expression as in Russian. However, aspectual meanings, as such, are present in any language, including French. But in this language, the meanings of a specific nature can be expressed by a number of lexical and grammatical means:
a) the semantics of the verb itself ( marginal: enterr, sortir/ unlimited: aimer, marcher, regarder) ;
b) affixes showing the beginning of the action ( s'endormir), its completeness ( accourir), repeatability (sautiller) ;
in) verb paraphrases ( commencer, se mettre à faire qch; être en train de faire qch).
Some scholars see the species category as opposed to simple/compound tenses or unlimited/limited tenses. In this case, these oppositions are excluded from the category of time.
4.8. Into the inclination category Traditional grammar includes 4 subcategories: indicative, imperative, conditional, and subjunctive. A systematic approach to the study of these forms and their meanings allows us to present the system of French moods as follows:
Direct Indirect
Indicatif Impératif Conditionnel Subjonctif
The indicative, as a direct mood, represents the action as fully up-to-date. In this respect, it is opposed to three other (indirect) moods, representing action as possible. However, the three indirect moods differ from each other. way representation
Possible action: The imperative represents a possible action as one that must happen; conditioning - as an action alleged or associated with the condition; subjunctive - as an action, depending on the will, desire, knowledge of the speaker or circumstances in which verbal communication takes place.
4.9. Collateral category contains three subcategories: asset, liability and reciprocal pledge. The last two are expressed analytically ( il est lave, il se lave), which raises the question of whether this is a morphological form of voice.
5. French is an analytic language. But in French, analyticism takes on a specific character, which is manifested primarily in the fact that analytic forms have reached a very high degree of fusion in it. When a word is included in speech, its actualizers (determinatives for nouns, service pronouns for a verb) play an important role. Very often a French word (this is especially true for the main parts of speech - a noun and a verb) is included in a sentence not independently, but as part of a syntagma consisting of a significant word and its actualizers, which Ch. Bally called "syntactic molecule". The unity of such a syntactic group is also supported by intonation. Many grammatical categories (for example, the number and gender of a noun, the person and number of a verb, etc.) are specified in the composition of such a “molecule”, remaining morphologically unexpressed in the composition of a word. All this indicates a great grammatical dependence of the word on its environment. Parts of speech do not have pronounced morphological indicators, which, on the one hand, facilitates conversion as a way of word formation, but, on the other hand, makes it difficult to attribute the word to one or another part of speech. Hence the great role of function words (pronouns, determinatives, prepositions) in establishing the syntactic functions and morphological categories of the main parts of speech.
5.1. In terms of expression French morphology is characterized the following features:
a) morphological irregularity , manifested in the fact that the same category of words of the same part of speech is expressed differently. Specific means expressions of morphological meanings are very diverse. So, for example, with verb conjugation, various forms basics: full and abbreviated, stressed and unstressed; b) discrepancy between oral and written codes. In oral speech, analyticism, manifested in the immutability of the word, is observed much more often than in written language, where some categories (for example, gender and number) use agglutination;
in) discrepancy between colloquial and literary (bookish) styles. Some grammatical forms ( passé simple, passé antérieur, imparfait and plus-que-parfait du subjonctif) are only used in book style. Stylistic differences are also very pronounced in some syntactic categories, such as the expression of a question or a negation; pronoun forms also differ depending on the style of speech.
5.2. In terms of content French morphology is characterized by a certain set of grammatical meanings expressed by words of various parts of speech. Each part of speech has a certain set of grammatical categories, which, however, are not limited to one part of speech. They are characteristic of several parts of speech, but in some they are implemented at the level of vocabulary, in others - at the level of classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories, in others - at the most abstract level of inflectional categories, for example, categories of gender and number for nouns, on the one hand , and for adjectives and/or verbs, on the other. As a result of all this, grammatical categories in French do not have clear boundaries, which leads to disputes over the number and nomenclature of grammatical categories. Conjugated categories appear in the language, the so-called. “supercategories” that combine several categories (for example, number and definiteness in the nominal system or tense, mood and aspect in the verbal system), which emphasizes the non-rigid, “fuzzy” nature of grammatical categories in the language.
5.3.
To combat features parts of speech systems French language should include the presence of a large number of auxiliary words (article and other determinatives, verbal pronouns), the lack of clarity of formal indicators of parts of speech, which makes it difficult to differentiate the latter. As a result, a large role is assigned to the syntactic function of the word. This also leads to freedom of interpartial transposition, the transition of a word to another functional class. "Supercategories" also appear here, including several parts of speech, for example, noun + adjective; adjective + determiner; determiner + pronoun; adjective + adverb; adverb + preposition; preposition + conjunction. 5.4. In terms of functioning French morphology
It is characterized by a less rigid connection between the gramme and the lexeme. This means that grammatical categories can quite easily attach to words even when the latter are incompatible with the meaning of the grammatical category. Thus, animate nouns easily form the feminine gender, the plural form can be formed from an uncountable noun (abstract, singular, real), which often leads to recategorization, i.e. to change the meaning of a word, for example, the same verb can be used both transitively and intransitively.
5.5. Morphological categories of the French language are characterized by great multifunctionality and the widest polysemy. Very often forms are used in their secondary functions. There is a pronounced tendency to use unmarked members in a context or situation not only in the case of neutralization, but also in the case of transposition. So, when transposing, they often use the singular form, the indefinite personal pronoun on replaces other pronominal forms, présent de l'indicatif expands its scope by replacing other tenses and modal forms.
III. Questions for self-control
- a) What is the greatest degree of cohesion,
French?
b) What are the features of the French language in the field
Expressions of grammatical categories in a sentence?
in) What is the "syntactic molecule" of S. Bally?
G) What is the nature problem
Verb and Nominal Actualizers in French
- a) In which categories are the most pronounced
Speeches in French?
b) What are the strongest tendencies towards
Analyticism in oral speech. than in writing?
in) What is the tendency of the French language to
The fact that the same words and categories receive in
Forms of speech different ways of grammatical
Expressions?
G) What is the effect of liaison on morphology
Speaking in French?
- a) What are the parts of speech based on?
b) What parts of speech differ in the way they are displayed
elements of reality?
in) How are the main parts of speech different from
Additional?
G) How do the main parts of speech differ from dependent ones?
e) What systems of the main parts of speech exist in
language? Describe each of the systems.
4. a) What is a grammatical category in
b) How does the relationship between the category of the genus manifest itself?
Noun with its animation /
Inanimate?
in) What is semantic transposition and
Distinctive function of animate forms
Nouns?
G) In what cases is the adjective itself
Does it indicate the gender of the face?
e) Which pronouns express the category of gender? FROM
What is the reason?
e) What parts of speech express the category of number?
and) What semantic oppositions are expressed
h) What is the problem with category of species in
French?
and) Describe the inclination system in modern
French.
5. a)
French morphology in terms of expression?
b) What are the characteristics of the military
French morphology in terms of content?
- Gak V.G. Comparative typology of French and
2. Gak V.G. Theoretical grammar of French
Language - M .: Dobrosvet, 2000. S. 64-115.
