The figurative meaning of the word: examples. Words in literal and figurative meaning. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Single-valued and polysemantic words

When polysemous, one of the meanings of a word is direct, and everyone else - portable.

Direct meaning of the word- this is his main thing lexical meaning. It is directly aimed at the subject (immediately evokes an idea of ​​the subject, phenomenon) and is least dependent on the context. Words denoting objects, actions, signs, quantity, most often appear in

direct meaning.

Portable meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning that arose on the basis of the direct one. For example:

Toy, -and, and. 1. A thing used for playing. Children's toys.

2. transfer One who blindly acts according to someone else’s will is an obedient instrument of someone else’s will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of polysemy lies in the fact that some name of an object or phenomenon is transferred, transferred also to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects or phenomena simultaneously. Depending on the basis on which the name is transferred,” there are three main types of figurative meaning: 1) metaphor; 2) metonymy; 3) synecdoche.

Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - this is the transfer of a name by similarity, for example: ripe apple -eyeball(by form); human nose- bow of the ship(by location); chocolate bar- chocolate tan(by color); bird wing- airplane wing(by function); the dog howled- the wind howled(according to the nature of the sound), etc. yes

Metonymy(then Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity *, for example: water is boiling- forthe kettle is boiling; porcelain dish- delicious dish; native gold- Scythian gold etc. A type of metonymy is synecdoche.

Synecdoche(from the Greek “synekdoche” - co-implying) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa, for example: thick currant- ripe currants; beautiful mouth- extra mouth(about an extra person in the family); bighead- smart head etc.

In the process of developing figurative names, a word can be enriched with new meanings as a result of narrowing or expanding its basic meaning. Over time figurative meanings may become straight.

It is possible to determine in what meaning a word is used only in context. Compare, for example, the sentences: 1) Wesat on the corner bastion, so it could go both wayssee everything (M. Lermontov). 2) In Tarakanovka, as in the deepest bearish corner, there was no place for secrets (D. Mamin-Sibiryak)

* Adjacent - located directly next to, having about border.

In the first sentence the word corner used in its literal meaning: “the place where two sides of something meet or intersect.” And in stable combinations“in a remote corner”, “bearish corner” the meaning of the word will be figurative: in a remote corner- in remote areas, bearliving corner - desolate place.

In explanatory dictionaries direct meaning of the word is given first, and figurative values ​​are numbered 2, 3, 4, 5. The value recorded as figurative recently comes with the mark "peren" For example:

Wooden,-oh, -oh. 1. Made from wood, 2. trans. Motionless, unexpressive. Wooden facial expression. ABOUT Wood oil- cheap grade of olive oil.

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meaning. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.

About the literal and figurative meaning of the word

More from junior classes School we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).

But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);

2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);

4) exposure rocks(At this point exit limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word

Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

1. Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
2. Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
3. Synecdoche (transfer general meaning for part of it).

The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.

What is a metaphor

As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

• by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city ​​- main area);
• by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
• by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
• on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.

Metaphorical rethinking is also not uncommon, based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).

The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).

Metonymy is an important way of word formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" Even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:

• the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
• part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
• an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in early period your creativity" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”

Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.

What is synecdoche

Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of indicating an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trope.

How and when is synecdoche used?

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we are talking about: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”

Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them grotesqueness or humorous overtones.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.

A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.

How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " warp" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without an ending.”

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:

1. Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
2. Human temperament (passionate) nature).
3. Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
4. Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed values, with which, by the way, given word and was borrowed from French, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used figuratively: examples

Words with a figurative meaning are often used as means of expression fiction, media, and also in advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberate collision in subtext is very popular different meanings one word. So, oh mineral water the advertisement says: “A source of cheerfulness.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”

The authors works of art To give them brightness and imagery, they use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning

In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their place in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.

It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.

Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”

Introduction

Richness and diversity vocabulary The Russian language is noted not only by specialists - learned linguists, but also by writers and poets. One of the factors in the richness of our language is the polysemy of most words. This allows them to be used not in one specific context, but in several, sometimes completely different ones.

The meanings of polysemantic words can be direct and figurative. Figurative meanings are involved in the creation of vivid figurative texts. They do literary language richer and more intense.

Purpose of the work: to find examples of use in the text by M. Sholokhov “ Quiet Don» words with direct and figurative meanings.

Job objectives:

• · Determine which values ​​are considered direct and which are figurative;
• · Find examples of words with direct and figurative meanings in M. Sholokhov’s text “Quiet Don”.

The work consists of two chapters. The first chapter presents theoretical information on the problem of direct and figurative meanings of words. The second chapter is a list of examples illustrating words used in their literal and figurative meaning.

Direct and figurative meaning of words in Russian

Words in Russian have two types of meanings: the main, direct meaning, and the non-basic, figurative meaning.

Direct meaning words are “a direct connection between a sound complex and a concept, a direct nomination” Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P. Lekanta - M.: Higher. school, 1988. - pp. 9-11..

The figurative meaning is secondary; it arises on the basis of associative connections between concepts. The presence of similarities between objects is a prerequisite for the fact that the name of one object begins to be used to name another object; thus, a new, figurative meaning of the word arises.

The use of words in a figurative meaning is a generally recognized method of expressive speech. The main types of figurative meaning are the techniques of metaphor and metonymy.

Metaphor is “the transfer of a name from one object to another based on any similarity of their characteristics” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International relations, 1995. - 560 pp.

The similarity of objects receiving the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape (ring 1 on the hand - smoke ring 2); by color (gold medallion - golden curls); by function (fireplace - room stove and fireplace - electrical appliance for heating the room).

The similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something (the tail of an animal - the tail of a comet), in their assessment (clear day - clear style), in the impression they make (black blanket - black thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different things in one word phenomena. Convergence is also possible based on other characteristics: green strawberry- green youth (unifying feature - immaturity); fast running - fast mind ( common feature- intensity); the mountains stretch - the days stretch (associative connection - length in time and space).

Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the talk of a stream.

It often happens that the main, original meaning of a word is metaphorically reinterpreted on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various characteristics: a gray-haired old man - a gray-haired antiquity - a gray-haired fog; black blanket - black 2 thoughts - black ingratitude - black Saturday - black box (on an airplane).

Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individually authored metaphors. The first ones wear linguistic character, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. Linguistic metaphors, which served as a source for the emergence of a new meaning for the word, are mostly non-figurative, which is why they are called “dry”, “dead”: the elbow of a pipe, the bow of a boat, the tail of a train. But there can also be transfers of meaning in which the imagery is partially preserved: a blooming girl, a steely will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is significantly inferior to the expression of individual poetic images.

Dry metaphors that give rise to new meanings of words are used in any style of speech (scientific: eyeball, root of a word; official business: retail outlet, alarm signal); linguistic figurative metaphors tend to expressive speech, their use in formal business style excluded; individual author's metaphors are property artistic speech, they are created by masters of words.

Metonymy is “the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity.”

Thus, it is metonymic to transfer the name of the material to the product from which it is made (gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); names of the place - to the groups of people who are there (audience - Audience listens carefully to the lecturer); the names of the dishes - based on their contents (porcelain dish - delicious dish); names of the action - on its result (doing embroidery - beautiful embroidery); names of the action - to the place of action or those who perform it (crossing the mountains - underground transition); the name of the item - to its owner (tenor - young tenor); the name of the author - on his works (Shakespeare - put Shakespeare), etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be not only linguistic, but also individually authored.

Synecdoche is “the transfer of the name of a whole to its part, and vice versa” Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. - M.: International Relations, 1995. - 560 pp. For example, pear - fruit tree and the pear is the fruit of this tree.

Transfers of meaning in such expressions as, for example, the feeling of an elbow, the right hand, are based on synecdoche.

word polysemous metaphor expressiveness

Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is inherent in the concept of “language”. How much is hidden in it, and how little we actually know about language! We spend every day and even every minute next to him - whether we say our thoughts out loud or read or listen to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in the search for true beauty

The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.

First of all, you need to understand the figurative meaning of the word, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In the Russian language there are significantly fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, - ambiguous word, examples: house can be used to mean a building, a room for people to live, a family structure, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.

With polysemy, a distinction is made between the literal and figurative meaning of a word. The first meaning of the word, its basis, is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word “straight” in this context is figurative in nature, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something even,

without bends” - is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, expressed unambiguously.” So we don’t have to go far - we just need to be more careful and observant in what words we use, when and how.

From the above example it already becomes clear that a figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are different types of figurative meaning such as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.

Direct and can resonate with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:

ice water - icy hands(by attribute);

poisonous mushroom - poisonous character (by attribute);

star in the sky - star in hand (by location);

chocolate candy - chocolate tan (based on color).

Metonymy is the selection in a phenomenon or object of some property, which by its nature can replace the others. For example:

gold decoration- she has gold in her ears;

porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;

headache - my headache went away.

And finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing relationship of part to whole and vice versa. For example:

He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body in which the brain is located).

The entire village took his side - every resident, i.e. the “village” as a whole, which replaces its part.

What can we say in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will be able not only to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy... Who knows?

A word can have one lexical meaning. Such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialogue, purple, saber, on alert, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen

There are several types unambiguous words

1. These include, first of all, proper names (Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok). Their extremely specific meaning excludes the possibility of varying the meaning, since they are the names of individual objects.

2. Words that have recently arisen and are not yet widely used are usually unambiguous. (briefing, grapefruit, pizza, pizzeria etc.). This is explained by the fact that in order to develop polysemy in a word, it must be used frequently in speech, and new words cannot immediately gain universal recognition and distribution.

3. Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous (binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase). Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are rarely used in speech (beads, turquoise). This helps them maintain clarity.

4. One meaning usually distinguishes the terms: tonsillitis, gastritis, fibroids, syntax, noun.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. These words are called polysemantic, they are opposed unambiguous words. The ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy. For example: word root- ambiguous. IN " Explanatory dictionary Russian language" by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated:

1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inside of a tooth, hair, nail. Turn red to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. The beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: the main, significant part of the word. Root- significant part of a word.

Direct meaning of the word- this is its main meaning. For example, adjective gold means "made of gold, composed of gold": gold coin, gold chain, gold earrings.

figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary, non-basic meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. Golden autumn, golden curls- the adjective in these phrases has a different meaning - figurative (“similar to gold in color”). Golden time, golden hands- in these examples the adjective has a figurative meaning - “beautiful, happy.”

The Russian language is very rich in such transfers:

wolf skin- voracious appetite;

iron nail- iron character.

If we compare these phrases, we can see that adjectives with a figurative meaning not only tell us about some quality of a person, but evaluate it, figuratively and vividly describe it: golden character, deep mind, warm heart, cold look.

The use of words in a figurative meaning gives expressiveness and imagery to speech. Poets and writers are looking for fresh, unexpected, accurate means of conveying their thoughts, feelings, emotions, and moods. Based on the figurative meaning of words, they are created special means artistic representation: comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet etc.

Thus, based on the figurative meaning of the word, the following are formed:

comparison(one object is compared to another). The moon is like a lantern; fog like milk;

metaphor(hidden comparison). Rowan bonfire(rowan, like a fire); bird cherry sprinkles snow(cherry bird is like snow);

personification(human properties are transferred to animals and inanimate objects). The grove dissuaded me; the cranes do not regret; the forest is silent;

epithet(figurative use of adjectives). Golden grove; birch tongue; pearl frost; dark fate.