Articulatory characteristics of consonant sounds. Vowels and consonants. Their articulatory and acoustic differences. Articulatory characteristics of vowel sounds
The characteristics of consonant sounds include five main features.
1. Place of education consonant depends on which active organ performs
main work and with which passive organ it closes or approaches.
If the active organ is the lower lip, then the consonants can be labiolabial: [p],
[p'], [b], [b'], [m], [m'] (passive organ - upper lip) and labiodental: [v], [v'], [f], [f' ]
(passive organ – upper teeth).
If the active organ is the tongue, then the characteristic of the consonant depends on what
part of the tongue - anterior, middle or posterior - is involved in creating a barrier and with what passive facet - teeth, anterior, middle or posterior part of the palate - the tongue approaches or closes.
Front lingual consonants there are dental when the front
directed to the teeth: [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [n], [n'], [ l], [l'], [ts], and
anterior palatal, when it is directed to the front of the sky: [p], [p’], [w], [g], [h’].
Anteropalatal consonants are also called alveolar, because in these consonants, the place of closest approximation of the front part of the back of the tongue to the front part of the palate is the alveoli, in some consonants it is also adjacent to the alveoli
area of the hard palate.
Middle language at the same time always and mid palate: .
Rear lingual consonants (active organ - back of the tongue):
– posterior palatal(tongue directed towards the back of the palate): [k], [g], [x], [γ], [ng];
– middle palate: [k’], [g’], [x’], [γ’].
2. Method of formation of a consonant- this is a characteristic of an obstacle in the oral cavity in the path of an air stream and a method of overcoming it. This obstacle is of three types: a narrow gap between the adjacent organs of speech, their complete closure, and an active organ trembling in the flow of speech.
Occlusive consonants include the moment of complete cessation of air flow
jets through the oral cavity. Depending on the nature of overcoming the stop, consonants are divided into:
1. Plosives– noise is formed as a result of a strong rupture of the bow: [b],
[b’], [p], [p’], [d], [d’], [t], [t’], [g], [g’], [k], [k’].
2. Connective passages– when they form in the oral cavity, a complete
closure, but the air does not break the closure, but rushes around it.
Pedestal passages are divided into:
– nasal(air passes through the nasal cavity): [m], [m], [ng] (nasal
back-lingual, pronounced in place [n] before [k], [g]: rank, slang, dotted line, congress.
– lateral: [l], [l’].
3. Occlusion-slit(affricates) – the opening of the stop for these sounds does not occur
instantly, by explosion, and by moving into the gap: [ts] – [d^z], [ts'] – [d'^z'], [h] – [d^zh], [h’] – [ d'^zh'].
Slotted(fricatives, from Latin - fricatio - friction). When gaps form
consonants, the active organ, approaching the passive, forms a gap. The air rubs against the walls of the crack and noise is generated. The fricative sounds include: [v], [v'], [f], [f'], [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [sh], [sh':] , [zh], [zh':], [x], [x'], [γ], [γ'], .
Trembling e are formed as a result of oscillations (vibrations) of the tip of the tongue under
exposure to an air stream, resulting in the closure and opening of the tip of the tongue with the alveoli: [p], [p’].
3. Noise level(degree of its intensity) consonants are divided into sonorants: [m],
[m'], [n], [n'], [l], [l'], [p], [p'], and noisy [p], [p'], [b], [b' ], [f], [f'], [t], [t'], [d], [d'], [s],
[s'], [z], [z'], [c], [h'], [w], [g], [k], [k'], [g], [g'], [ x], [x'] noise intensity in noisy
consonants are significantly higher than those of sonorants. This is explained by differences in the tension of the speech organs, in the width of the passage for the air stream and in its strength when pronouncing sonorant and noisy consonants. Noisy consonants are formed with greater muscle tension than in sonorant consonants in the part of the oral cavity where an obstacle to the air stream occurs. The width of the passage for the air stream during the articulation of sonorant consonants is greater than during the articulation of noisy consonants. Therefore, the force of the air stream emerging from the oral cavity during speech when pronouncing noisy consonants is much greater than when pronouncing sonorous ones.
4. By participation or non-participation of votes all consonants are divided into voiced and unvoiced.
Voiceless and voiced consonants are determined by the absence or presence of them
pronouncing the voice (tone). The voice occurs as a result of the vocal cords
are brought together and tremble when a stream of air passes. This is how voiced consonants are formed: [p], [l], [m], [n], , [b], [c], [d], [d], [z], [z]. The difference between voiced sonorants and voiced noisy ones is that in voiced sonorants the voice significantly predominates over the noise, and in voiced sonorants the noise predominates over the voice. Without a voice, with the help of noise alone, voiceless consonants are formed: [k], [p], [s], [t], [f], [x], [ts], [ch’], [sh]. When pronouncing them, the glottis is open and the vocal cords are relaxed.
According to deafness/voicedness, consonants form pairs:
12 correlative pairs
[b], [b'], [c], [c'], [d], [g'], [d], [d'], [g], [g':], [h], [z']
[p], [p'], [f], [f'], [k], [k'], [t], [t'], [w], [w':], [s], [With']
9 unrelated voiced sounds(sonorant)
[l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’], [j]
[–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–], [–]
4 unrelated voiceless sounds(noisy)
[–], [–], [–], [–]
[x], [x’], [ts], [h]
In a number of recent textbooks on the modern Russian language, in particular in
textbook “Russian Language” in 2 parts (authors Kasatkin L.L., Lvov M.R., Terekhova T.G. and others) / ed. L.Yu. Maksimova, “Modern Russian Language” (author Dibrova, L.L. Kasatkin) states that all consonants have pairs according to voicing - deafness:
[ts] – [d^z]: bridgehead, special task, end of the year;
[h’] – [d’^zh’]: I wish I could lie down, there was a daughter, the base;
[x] – [γ]: accountant, two-year, there were two of them.
Sonorant sounds also have pairs of deafness: [l] - [l], [m] - [m], [n] - [n], [r] - [r],
[j]–[j].
Voiceless sonorants can appear at the end of a word after a voiceless consonant: met[r],
whir[r’], meaning[l], dog[n’].
5. By the presence or absence of palatalization, i.e. softening (from Latin palatum -
sky) consonants are divided into soft and hard.
Soft consonants are characterized by the fact that to the main articulation of consonants
an additional one is added - palatalization - raising the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate and moving the back of the tongue forward. Therefore, soft consonants, except [j], are palatalized.
In [j], the raising of the middle part of the tongue to the middle part of the palate is not additional, but
the main articulation, therefore [j] is a palatal sound.
When forming hard consonants, the back of the tongue tenses and
rises to the soft palate. Such consonants are called velarized (from Latin velum palāti - curtain of palate).
In the inconsistency scale [zh], [sh], [ts] are hard consonants; [sh’:], [h’], – soft consonants.
The sounds [ch], [sh], [zh] in certain positions have correlative pairs of softness.
[h] has a hard pair in front of the hard [w]: better [h’], but better [h]she. In [ts] a soft pair is found in front of: pya[ts’]xia.
U solid sound[sh] para – sound [sh’:]: [sh’:]uka
Only the voiced [j] cannot have a hard pair, because he stands beyond correlation.
MBOU Proletarskaya Secondary School No. 6, ALC "Vasilyok" »
Report on the topic: “Correct articulation of sounds of the Russian language”
Teacher - speech therapist Novikova Irina Aleksondrovna
What is articulation and why is it needed?
Articulation - This is the work of the speech apparatus to correctly create sound. With correct articulation, there is a clear division of sounds that we can distinguish.
Articulation is primarily the correct and distinct pronunciation of sounds. And the main role here is given not to the vocal cords, but to the organs of pronunciation, which can be active (tongue and lips) and passive (teeth, gums, soft and hard palate).
Pronunciation of words is a rather complex system, to components which includes the respiratory organs, vocal cords, mouth and nose, tongue, lips, etc. The actions of this system are coordinated with each other and, importantly, without the effort of the speaking person.
All speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. They differ articulatory and acoustically.
Articulation of vowel sounds.
Vowels are tonal sounds, they are formed as a result of vibration vocal cords when a stream of air passes through the larynx. These vibrations are periodic, they create a tone, a musical sound. When vowel sounds are formed, the air stream passes through the mouth freely, without encountering any obstacles.Vowels are characterized by a weak stream of air. When vowels are formed, muscle tension spreads almost equally throughout the entire oral cavity.
The classification of vowel sounds is based on three characteristics:
·participation of lips
degree of elevation of the tongue vertically relative to the palate
the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward along the larynx
There are six vowel sounds in modern Russian: [a], [o], [u], [e], [i], [s].Depending on the movement of the tongue in the horizontal direction (back and forth), vowels are divided into:
1) front vowels [i], [e] (when pronouncing them, the tongue moves forward, and its tip rests on the lower teeth);
2) middle vowels [ы], [а] (when pronouncing them, the tongue moves slightly back);
3) back vowels [у], [о] (when pronouncing them, the tongue moves back to a greater extent).
Depending on the degree of lifting of the tongue to the palate, i.e., vertical movement of the tongue, the following differ:
1) vowels of the upper rise [i], [s], [y] (when they are formed, the tongue is raised to the palate in to the greatest extent);
2) vowels of medium rise [e], [o] (when they are formed, the tongue rises less high to the palate);
3) lower vowels, which include only [a] (when it is formed, the tongue is not raised or raised to a minimal extent, the lower jaw is lowered and the mouth is wide open).
VOWEL CLASSIFICATION
Participation of lipsUnrounded
Ruined
Row
Front
Average
Rear
rise
Upper
Average
Lower
Articulation of consonants.
Consonant sounds (37 pcs.) are speech sounds, during the pronunciation of which the air stream encounters various obstacles; they consist of noise or voice and noise. Noise is not a periodic sound; it arises as a result of an air stream overcoming various obstacles.
To overcome the obstacle when pronouncing consonants, a stronger air stream is needed.
When consonants are formed, muscle tension is concentrated in the place where the obstruction occurs.
The characteristics of consonant sounds include the following main features:
1. Place of education
This sign depends on which active organ does the main work and with which passive organ it closes or comes close (labiodental, anterior lingual, etc. sounds).
2. Method of education.
This is a characteristic of the obstacle in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream and the method of overcoming it (frictional, stop and tremulous consonants).
3. By noise level (by its intensity)
On this basis, all consonants are divided into sonorant and noisy.
4. Voiceless and voiced.
They are determined by the absence or presence of a voice (tone) during their pronunciation.
5.
Hard and soft.
They differ in the articulation characteristic of each of these groups.
During the formation of sounds, an obstacle can be created either by shifted lips, or by a lip and teeth, or by the tongue when interacting with the teeth or palate.
The organ that moves to form an obstruction is active. This is either the lower lip or any part of the tongue (back, middle, front). And the organ that remains motionless while producing sound is passive. This is either the upper lip, or the upper teeth, or some part of the palate (back, middle, front).
Thus, the following groups of sounds can be distinguished:
Labial sounds [p], [p’], [b], [b’], [m], [m’];
Labiodental sounds [f], [f’], [v], [v’];
Lingual, front-lingual, dental sounds [t], [t'], [s], [s'], [z], [z'], [ts], [l], [l"], [n], [n'];
Lingual, anterior lingual, palatal sounds [w], [w’:], [zh], [zh’:], [r], [r’] [h’];
Lingual, midlingual, midpalatal sound [j]; - lingual, posterior lingual, posterior palatal sounds [k], [k’], [g], [g’], [x], [x’].
LABIAL P, P, B, B, M, M
Labial sounds, or bilabial: p, p, b, b, m, m. When pronouncing these sounds, a bow occurs between the upper and lower lips.
Sound and letterP
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [P] is a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are closed and open under the pressure of exhaled air. The tip of the tongue extends slightly from the lower teeth. The tongue is flat. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
SoundP"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [P"] is a soft, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are closed and open under the pressure of exhaled air. The tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letterB
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [B] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are closed and open under the pressure of exhaled air. The tip of the tongue extends slightly from the lower teeth. The tongue is flat. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundB"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [B"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are closed and open under the pressure of exhaled air. The tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound and letterM
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [M] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are closed and do not open, the air comes out through the nose. The tip of the tongue extends slightly from the lower teeth. The tongue is flat. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundM"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [M"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are closed and do not open, the air comes out through the nose. The tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
LINGUAL-DENTAL S, S, Z, Z, C, T, T, D, D, N, N, L, L
Lingual-dental: s, s, z, z, c, t, t, d, d, n, n, l, l. With these sounds, the front edge or tip of the tongue articulates
relative to the front teeth (incisors).
Sound and letterWITH
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [S] is a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
The teeth are close together, the lips are slightly stretched. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
SoundWITH"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [С"] is a soft, unvoiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The teeth are brought together, the lips are stretched in a smile. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letterZ
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [З] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The teeth are close together, the lips are slightly stretched. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundZ"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [Z"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The teeth are brought together, the lips are stretched in a smile. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is arched. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound and letterC
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [Ц] is always a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
Initially, the back of the tongue is sharply curved and touches the tubercles behind the upper teeth, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth. Then the back of the tongue lowers to the position occupied when pronouncing the sound [C], and the tip of the tongue remains in place. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letterT
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [T] is a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue is pressed against the upper teeth, the back of the tongue is lowered. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the tongue comes off the teeth. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
SoundT"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [T"] is a soft, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved into a steep hill and is pressed with the front part against the tubercles behind the upper teeth. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the front part of the tongue comes off the tubercles. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letterD
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [D] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue is pressed against the upper teeth, the back of the tongue is lowered. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the tongue comes off the teeth. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundD"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [D"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved into a steep hill and is pressed with the front part against the tubercles behind the upper teeth. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the front part of the tongue comes off the tubercles. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound and letterN
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [N] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue is pressed against the upper teeth, the back of the tongue is lowered. The exhaled air passes through the nose. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundN"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [N"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved into a steep hill and is pressed with the front part against the tubercles behind the upper teeth. The exhaled air passes through the nose. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound and letterL
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [L] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue rests on the upper teeth or tubercles behind the upper teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue is lowered, the back of the back of the tongue is raised, the lateral edges of the tongue are lowered. The shape of the tongue resembles a saddle. The exhaled air passes along the sides of the tongue. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundL"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [L"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The lips are stretched into a smile. The front part of the tongue touches the tubercles behind the upper teeth, the middle part of the back of the tongue is raised, the back part of the back of the tongue is lowered, and the lateral edges of the tongue are lowered. The tongue is tense. The exhaled air passes along the sides of the tongue. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
LINGUAL-ALVEOLAR P, Pb
Lingual-alveolar: r, r. These sounds are produced by vibration of the front edge of the tongue at the alveoli.
Sound and letterR
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [P] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The tip of the tongue touches the tubercles behind the upper teeth, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The shape of the tongue resembles a spoon. The tip of the tongue trembles under the pressure of exhaled air. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
SoundR"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [P"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The lips are slightly stretched. The front of the tongue touches the cusps behind the upper teeth or upper teeth, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The back of the tongue is raised. The tongue is tense. The tip of the tongue trembles under the pressure of exhaled air. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
LINGUAL-FRONTALATAL: W, F, H, SH
Lingual-anteropalatal: w, g, h, shch. When pronouncing these sounds, the tongue, with its front edge or front back, forms a closure or narrowing in the front of the palate, behind the alveoli. The pronunciation of these sounds is facilitated by slight protrusion and rounding, so they can be called labialized.
Sound and letterSh
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [Ш] is always a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
The lips are pushed forward and rounded. The tip of the tongue is raised to the upper part of the palate, but does not touch it, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The back of the tongue is raised. The shape of the tongue resembles a cup. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letterAND
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [Zh] is always a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
The lips are pushed forward and rounded. The tip of the tongue is raised to the upper part of the palate, but does not touch it, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The back of the tongue is raised. The shape of the tongue resembles a cup. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound and letterH
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
the sound [H] is always a soft, dull consonant.
Articulation Features:
The lips are pushed forward and rounded. The tip of the tongue touches the palate behind the tubercles, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The back of the tongue is raised. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the tip of the tongue comes off the palate. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letterSCH
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
the sound [Ш] is always a soft, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
The lips are slightly pushed forward and rounded. The tip of the tongue is raised to the tubercles behind the upper teeth, the lateral edges of the tongue are pressed against the upper molars. The back of the tongue is raised. The tongue is tense. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (novote).
LINGUAL-POSTERPALATAL: K, Kb, G, Gb, X, XH, Y
Lingual-posterior palatal: k, k, g, g, x, x, y. They are obtained as a result of the closure or bringing together of the back of the tongue with the back of the palate.
Sound and letterTO
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [K] is a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
the tip of the tongue extends slightly from the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved steeply and touches the palate. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the back of the tongue comes off the palate. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound TO"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [K"] is a soft, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
the tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved steeply and touches the palate. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the back of the tongue comes off the palate. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letter G
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
sound [G] is a hard voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the tip of the tongue extends slightly from the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved steeply and touches the palate. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the back of the tongue comes off the palate. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound G"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
sound [G"] is a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved steeply and touches the palate. Under the pressure of exhaled air, the back of the tongue comes off the palate. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
Sound andletterX
Color designation:
blue.
Characteristic:
the sound [X] is a hard, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
the tip of the tongue moves slightly away from the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved steeply. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letter X"
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
the sound [X"] is a soft, voiceless consonant.
Articulation Features:
the tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved steeply. The vocal cords are resting, the throat is not trembling (no voice).
Sound and letter Y
Color designation:
green.
Characteristic:
the sound [Y] is always a soft voiced consonant.
Articulation Features:
the lips are stretched in a smile, the teeth are visible, the tip of the tongue is pressed against the lower teeth, the back of the tongue is curved in a steep slope. The vocal cords are working, the throat is trembling (there is a voice).
In order for a person to pronounce various sounds correctly, his organs of articulation, lips, tongue, soft palate, lower jaw, must be sufficiently mobile. As the child learns to speak, the strength and precision of the movements of these organs gradually develop, and the speech itself becomes more intelligible and differentiated. This process can be accelerated only by constant training of the speech organs. This is precisely what a number of special exercises are aimed at to strengthen and develop the mobility of the tongue, lips, cheeks, and frenulum. Articulation gymnastics for preschoolers the goal is to teach the child to speak correctly.
A child can pronounce any sound incorrectly, but most often this refers to the sounds L, R, whistling and hissing.
As a rule, the pronunciation of sounds that are difficult to articulate is impaired. Violations of sound pronunciation in children can manifest themselves either in the absence of certain sounds, or in distortions, or in substitutions.
No sound in speech it can be expressed in its deletion at the beginning of a word (for example, instead of fish, a child says “fish ", in the middle of a word (steamboat - "steamer ") and at the end of a word (ball - "sha »).
Sound distortion is expressed in the fact that instead of the correct one, a sound is pronounced that is not in the phonetic system of the Russian language. For example: velar and uvular r (burr), when, when pronouncing a sound, the thin edge of the soft palate or a small tongue (uvula) vibrates instead of the tip of the tongue; interdental s, z, c, w, g, sch, h when, when pronouncing a sound, the tip of the tongue falls out between the incisors; lateral pronunciation of sounds s, z, c, w, g, sch, h when, when pronouncing a sound, the edge of the tongue sags and the sound takes on a squelching tone; bilabial l when the sound is pronounced using the lips and is similar to the sound of the English sound w etc.
Sound replacement another sound found in the phonetic system of the Russian language. Sound replacements can be as follows:
Replacement of sounds that are identical in the method of formation and differ in the place of articulation, for example, the replacement of plosives in the back of the tongue To And G plosive prelingual T And d (« tulak " instead of a fist, etc.);
Replacement of sounds that are identical in place of formation and differ in the method of formation, for example, replacement of a fricative anterior lingual sound With anterior lingual plosive T (« thump "instead of a bag, etc.);
Replacement of sounds that are identical in the method of formation and differ in the participation of organs of articulation, for example, fricative anterior lingual With fissure labiodental f (« femme "instead of a sled, etc.);
Replacement of sounds that are identical in the method and place of formation, but differ in the participation of the voice, for example, voiced sounds with voiceless ones (“pulka "instead of a bun, etc.);
Replacement of sounds identical in the method of formation and in the active organ of articulation, but differing in terms of hardness and softness, for example, hard with soft or soft with hard (“sup "instead of soup, etc.).
Disadvantages in the pronunciation of whistling and hissing sounds are called sigmatism, the sound R is rhotacism, the sound L is lambdacism, the replacement of whistling sounds with hissing or other sounds of the Russian language is called parasigmatism, the sound R is pararotacism, the sound L is paralambdacism.
Systematic implementation of a number of simple exercises helps the child to master faster, and most importantly, correctly. correct articulation sounds. This further helps to avoid difficulties in the overall development of the child’s speech.
If a child has already learned to pronounce sounds correctly in individual words, but oral speech distorts or misses them, then, in this case, the sounds need to be automated. One of the methods of automation is pure tongues.
A clear phrase is a rhythmic, rhyming phrase containing a combination of sounds, syllables, words and used to improve the pronunciation of sounds.
They are filled with the studied sound as much as possible; defectively pronounced sounds are excluded as much as possible. Children repeat and memorize such simple sayings more readily. A child can repeat them after an adult and pronounce them after memorizing them. To make it interesting for a child to automate sounds, the same pure phrases can be pronounced in different ways: quietly, loudly, slowly, quickly.
Why do we need pure talk?
These exercises help improve the diction of children and adults, help train the organs of articulation to quickly change position when pronouncing difficult combinations of sounds, and help eliminate unclear pronunciation (what is called “porridge in the mouth”).
Recommendations for exercises:
1. Pronounce pure phrases slowly and clearly at first
articulating every sound.
2. Gradually increase the tempo without compromising quality.
pronunciation.
3. You can recite the poems first in a whisper, trying
actively work with your lips and tongue. And then - loudly, with
the same activity of the organs of articulation.
Pure sayings with sounds R, R’
Ro-ro-ro --- Roma dropped the bucket.
Ru-ru-ru --- I take Vera by the hand.
Ir-ir-ir--- Irina has a bullfinch.
Er-er-er--- Yarik opened the door.
Pure sayings with sounds L, L’
Lala, la-la, la-la --- Alla ate the salad.
..Ly-ly-ly --- Mila has puzzles.
Le-le-le --- Lena and I ate soufflé.
Li-li-li --- Leonid has ships.
Pure sayings with sounds S, S’
Sa-sa-sa --- there is a fox on Sasha's sled.
So-so-so- --- they gave Sonya a wheel.
.Yes-es-es --- Senya was going to the forest.
Yas-yas-yas --- Yaroslav started dancing.
Pure sayings with sounds Z, Z’
For-for-for --- Zakhar has a goat.
Zu-zu-zu ---umbrella I'll bring it to Zoya.
From-from-from --- this is Zinochka's whim.
Ez-ez-ez --- Zoya is standing by the birch trees.
Pure sayings with the sound Ш
Sha-sha-sha --- our Masha is good.
Shu-shu-shu --- Misha was eating porridge.
She-she-she --- they sewed Dasha’s hat.
Sha-sha-sha --- Ksyusha doesn’t have a pencil.
Pure sayings with the sound Ж
Zha-zha-zha --- Snezhana has two hedgehogs.
Zhu-zhu-zhu --- I'm friends with Seryozha.
Zhi-zhi-zhi --- Zhenya hold your hand.
Nursery rhymes.
Cockerel, cockerel, give Masha the comb!
We feed our Masha. Masha, Masha, eat your porridge.
Hush, mice, hush, mice! The cat came to our roof .
Pure tongues can develop not only pronunciation, but also other aspects of a child’s speech: phonemic awareness, vocabulary, grammar, coherent speech, sense of rhythm.VThis will help your child learn more easily in the future. curriculum at school.
Articulatory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation ( speech apparatus) and speech production mechanisms. Articulatory characteristics allows you to view the sound from the speaker's perspective. Sound, from the point of view of articulation, is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion), exposure and retreat (recursion). An articulation attack is when the speech organs move from a calm state to the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. Exposure is maintaining the position necessary to pronounce a sound. Indentation of articulation consists of transferring the speech organs to a calm state. The articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily the active organs of speech (tongue, lips).
The speech apparatus, i.e. a set of speech organs, which include: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm should be understood conditionally.
The entire speech apparatus of linguistics, i.e. From the point of view of the formation of speech sounds, speech can be divided into three parts:
Everything below the larynx
Everything above the larynx
The space in which articulation can occur from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract. Knowledge of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language.
Articulatory differences determine the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowel sounds are formed, a weak air stream passes freely without encountering obstacles. When consonant sounds are formed, a stronger air stream encounters obstacles on its path.
Articulatory phonetics studies the anatomical and physiological basis of articulation (speech apparatus) and the mechanisms of speech production. The articulatory characteristic allows us to consider the sound from the position of the speaker. Sound (from the point of view of articulation) is a certain sound unity, which consists of an attack (excursion) and an indentation (recursion). The articulatory characteristics are based on the work of the pronunciation organs, primarily the active organs.
The term “speech apparatus”, i.e. the set of speech organs, which include lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm, should be understood conditionally. Therefore, the entire speech apparatus linguistically (i.e. from the point of view of the formation of sounds in speech) can be divided into three parts:
1. everything below the larynx (the respiratory apparatus necessary for the formation of speech sounds);
2. larynx (air flow transformation);
3. everything above the larynx (in which articulation occurs).
The space in which articulation can occur from the vocal cords to the lips is called the vocal tract.
The meaning of articulation makes it possible to classify the sounds of the Russian language. Articulatory differences determine the division of the sounds of the Russian language into vowels and consonants. When vowel sounds are formed, a weak air stream passes freely without encountering obstacles. When consonants are formed, a stronger air stream encounters obstacles.
In Russian vowels classified according to 3 criteria:
1.by row– determined by the horizontal movement of the tongue:
· vowels front row - and, uh
· vowels average row - s, a
2.on the rise– vertical movement of the tongue:
· lower lifting – A
· average lifting – uh, oh
· upper lifting – and, y, y
3.by the presence or absence of labialization, those. by stretching or rounding the lips:
· labialized – oh, oh
· non-labialized – everyone else
Consonants sounds are characterized by 4 main characteristics:
[p] [l] [m] [n] [j]
[r, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ]
· noisy
- voiced [b] [c] [d] [e] [h] [g] [th]
[b, ] [c, ] [d, ] [d, ] [h, ]
- deaf [p] [t] [k] [s] [x] [ts] [h]
[p, ] [t, ] [k, ] [s, ]
2. by place of education:
Consonants:
· labial
Ø labiolabial [b] [p] [m]
[b, ] [p, ] [m, ]
Ø labiodental [v] [f]
[v, ] [f, ]
· lingual
Ø anterior lingual:
Dental [d] [t] [z] [s] [l] [n] [c]
[d, ] [t, ] [z, ] [s, ] [l, ] [n, ] [ts, ]
Palatal [f] [w] [r] [h]
[zh, ] [w, ] [r, ] [h, ]
Ø middle language [j]
Ø posterior lingual [g] [k] [x]
[g, ] [k, ] [x, ]
3. by method of education – due to the nature of the obstacle that occurs in the path of the air stream (a complete closure of the organs of speech or a gap)
· stop (explosive) [b] [p] [d] [t] [g] [j]
[b, ] [p, ] [d, ] [t, ] [g, ] [k, ]
When forming stop consonants, the organs of pronunciation are first completely closed, and then the air stream sharply opens them.
· affricates [ts] [h]
Consonant sounds that are formed by closing the organs of speech, between which there is a gap and the air, passing through this gap, seems to explode.
· trembling (vibrants)[r]
They are formed by the trembling tip of the tongue, which vibrates when an air stream exits.
· occlusive passages
Ø side [l]
Ø nasals [m] [n]
[m, ] [n, ]
They are formed as a result of the fact that the air stream finds another outlet due to the junction of the organs.
· fricatives (fricatives) [f] [h] [h] [s] [g] [w] [x] [j]
[f, ] [v, ] [h, ] [s, ] [g, ] [w, ] [x, ]
When fricative consonants are formed, the active organ moves closer to the passive organ, forming a gap through which an air stream passes; the gap is formed as a result of friction.
4. in relation to palatalization
One of characteristic features Russian consonants are a sign of hardness/softness. When pronouncing soft consonants, in addition to the main articulation, an additional articulation of palatalization (j-th pal.) is used. Hard consonants are characterized by a special articulation of hardness (velarization).
Consonants form pairs based on hardness/softness.
[b] [c] [d] [e] [h] [j] [l] [m] [n] [p] [r] [s] [t] [x]
[b, ] [c, ] [g, ] [d, ] [h, ] [k, ] [l, ] [m, ] [n, ] [p, ] [r, ] [s, ] [t , ] [X, ]
Unpaired soft: [j] [h, ] [w, ]
Unpaired solids: [f] [w] [c]
Sounds are classified according to different criteria. Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. At the same time, complexes are formed - vowels form syllables, but consonants do not. SIGNS DISTINGUISHING VOWEL SOUNDS FROM CONSONANTS1. The main difference between vowels and consonants is their role in syllable formation. A vowel sound always forms the top of a syllable and is a sonant; a consonant accompanies a sonant and is a consonant. 2. The articulatory difference between vowels and consonants consists of different tensions of the pronunciation apparatus and the absence or presence of a focus of formation. 3. When vowels are formed, the voice dominates over noise, while when most consonants are formed, the relationship is the opposite: noise dominates over voice. The presence of two types of speech sounds, differing in articulation, forces a classification of vowels to be made separately from the classification of consonants.
All vowels are sonorant and fricative, therefore the work of the vocal cords and the method of articulation cannot be the basis for the division of vowels. The classification is based on the row and rise of the tongue, and the work of the lips.
The row is determined by the part of the tongue that rises when a given vowel is formed. There are 3 rows of chapters. - front, back, middle The rise is determined by the degree of elevation of the tongue during the formation of the tongue. Diff. 3 lifts - top, middle, bottom. Ch. top the rise is narrow, the middle is medium, the bottom is wide. According to the participation of the lips - labialis and non-labialis.
Vacalism Russian. The language, consisting of 6 phonemes, is very simple and contrasts, for example, with the vocalism of French and English. languages that have tense and labial front vowels, long vowels and diphthongs.
Vowels are divided into nasal and pure. In modern Russian language There are no nasal vowels. Nasals differ from non-nasals in that when they are pronounced, the air flow coming from the larynx enters the nasal cavity, where additional vibrations are created, giving the sound a “nasal” sound. Articulation of nasal vowels occurs with the velum of the palate raised and the back of the tongue lowered, so that the air stream simultaneously enters the oral and nasal cavity. In some languages, vowels are divided depending on the duration of their sound. Long and short vowels are found in Russian speech in different phonetic conditions. The vowel system of many languages differentiates vowel length, forming vowel pairs based on duration. In addition, in the languages of the world there are diphthongs - vowels with complex articulation, pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. Diphthongs are divided into descending and ascending.
Classification acc. more complex than vowels, because there are more consonants in the languages of the world. The basis of the classification acc. There are 4 main articles. characteristics: 1) method of articulation; 2) active organ; 3) place of articulation; 4) work of the voice. ligaments I agree with the method of articulation. called the nature of overcoming an obstacle and passing an air stream while creating the noise necessary for the formation of a consonant. Diff. There are 2 main methods of articulation of accords - bow and gap (bow and fricative according to the method of articulation). Stops acc. formed by exploding an obstacle with an air stream ([p], [b], etc.). Slot acc. formed by the friction of the air stream against the walls of the passage created by the convergence of the organs of speech (fricatives acc.). Along with pure stops and fricatives acc. there are complex consonants: sonorous; affricates; aspirates. Sonorants are nasal [m], [n], also [l] and tremulous [r]. When pronouncing the nasal consonant, the stop is not broken.
The formation of affricates and aspirates associated with the duration of the consonant and its complement. articulation. Double cong. arise at the junction of morphemes and in the roots of borrowings. words The duration of the consonant is associated with the formation of affricates; the articulation of the cat begins with the stop, and then the fricative overcoming of the stop occurs. Aspirates have complex articulation starting from the bow. But the 2nd component is formed by the friction of air against the ligament when passing through the gap. This friction creates a gap. According to the active organ acc. are divided into labial, lingual and lingual. Labial acc. There are labial-labial, labial-dental, and fricative (f, v). Linguistic acc. There are anterior, middle, and posterior lingual. Front tongue acc. according to the location of the article. There are dental and anterior palatal. The dental ones are called whistling, and the palatal ones are called hissing. Protongue. acc. I will create the article by all means. Depending on the position of the tip of the tongue, the anterior tongue. are divided into dorosal, apical and cacuminal. Middle language acc. arranging the convergence of the average. parts of the tongue with the palatum (j). Posterior tongue acc. divided into uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal.
The work of the vocal cords is a mandatory sign according to On this basis, acc. divided into noisy and sonorous. Method art., active organ, place art., work goal. ligaments are the main article. signs. There are additional options: labialization, palatalization, velarization.
Question No. 23
Phonetic division of speech
Speech is a stream of sounds and it seems to be continuous. The flow can be divided into separate parts. Division may be different. If this division is based on grammatical design, then we are talking about division into sentences, words and morphemes. With phonetic division, units are distinguished: text, phrase, speech tact or syntagm, phonetic word, syllable and sound.
Text is only the initial value of the phonetic division of speech, because speech is not phonetic, but communicative in nature. The text also has phonetic characteristics: limited by pauses. Pause at the beginning and end of the text. Phrases stand out from the text by intonation. A phrase is a piece of text that has logical stress. (ll – pause). A phrase is a phonetic unit, a sentence is a grammatical unit. IN complex sentence one phonetic phrase.
Phrases are divided into speech beats or syntagms. Syntagms are distinguished by intonation, but at the border of the syntagma an unfinished intonation is heard.
The division of a speech stream into syntagms is always determined by meaning, so options are possible.
We must learn to work and rest.
A phonetic word is characterized by stress. Phonetic stress is a complex of sounds or a segment of a sound chain. There may be no pauses between words. In this case, the phonetic word can correspond to the first lexical word or a few words.
A syllable is a push of speech exhalation. Sound - minimum element speech flow.
Question #24
Phonetic processes
The most typical cases of interaction of sounds in the speech stream are accommodation, assimilation and dissimilation. These are basic phonetic processes.
Accommodations (adaptations) occur between consonants and vowels, usually next to each other. In this case, so-called glides may occur, for example, if you listen carefully to the pronunciation of the word will, you can hear a very short y between v and o.
Assimilation is the articulatory and acoustic rapprochement (similarity) of sounds (consonants with consonants, vowels with vowels). When we write give, but pronounce addat, the subsequent sound d, likening the previous t, creates assimilation. Assimilation can be complete, when one of the sounds completely resembles another (addat), or partial, when one of the sounds only partially brings the other closer to itself, but does not completely merge with it. In Russian, the word lozhka is pronounced like loshka, since the voiceless consonant k, acting on the preceding voiced z, turns this latter into a voiceless sh. Here, not complete, but only partial assimilation of sounds is formed, that is, not their complete assimilation to each other, but only partial rapprochement (the sounds k and w are different, but at the same time connected with each other common feature deafness). Consequently, according to the degree of similarity, assimilation can be complete or partial.
Assimilation can be progressive or regressive. Progressive assimilation occurs when a preceding sound influences a subsequent one. Regressive assimilation occurs when a subsequent sound affects the preceding sound. In the given examples of “addat” and “loshka” we are dealing with regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation is much less common than regressive assimilation. So, German noun Zimmer was formed from the old word Zimber: the preceding m resembled the subsequent b, forming two identical sounds.
A peculiar type of progressive assimilation is presented in the Turkic languages. This is the so-called vowel harmony (synharmonism). Synharmonism leads to the assimilation of vowels throughout the word. Here are some examples from the Oirot language: karagai (pine), where the first vowel a determines the presence of all other vowels a, egemen (woman) - the first vowel e determines the appearance of subsequent e. As we see, not only neighboring sounds are assimilated, but also those which are separated from each other in a word by other sounds. That is, we are dealing with non-contiguous assimilation.
The reasons for the occurrence of assimilation are explained by the interaction of sounds in the speech stream.
Dissimilation is cases of dissimilarity of sounds. Again, as in the case of assimilation, we are talking about the interaction of consonant sounds with consonants, and vowels with vowels. When in some Russian dialects they say lessora instead of springor, then two identical non-adjacent sounds r are dissimilar here, forming l and r. The subsequent p, as it were, pushes away the previous one, the result is non-adjacent regressive dissimilation. When in colloquial speech sometimes you can hear tranvai instead of tramvai, then dissimilation occurs here, but adjacent: two labiolabial sounds (m v) are dissimilar, forming anterior lingual n and labiolabial v. Consequently, both completely identical sounds (for example, р and р in the example spring) and sounds that are close in articulation, but still unequal (for example, m in the word tram) can be dissimilated.
Like assimilation, dissimilation is distinguished between progressive and regressive, contiguous and non-contiguous. Dissimilation is sometimes reflected in literary language, in the written form of speech.
The modification of sounds in the speech chain (speech flow) is called phonetic (sound) processes. Changes in sounds can be combinatory (the interaction of the beginning and end of the articulation of adjacent sounds) and positional (the position of the sound in a word). Combinatorial phonetic processes involve mainly consonants. The main combinatorial processes are: 1) ASSIMILATION - arises as a result of the interaction of recursion and excursion of neighboring consonants, the overlap of excursion and recursion neighbor acc. Assimilation is the assimilation of neighboring sounds in some component of articulation; most often, the likening of consonants in terms of voicedness-voicelessness and hardness-softness and in place of formation. Ass-I can be complete (both sounds become exactly the same. Note: “silent”) or partial (similarity in only one component of articulation. Note: “shop”). In the direction of assimilation, the assemblage is: progressive (direct. The recursion of the previous consonant is superimposed on the excursion of the subsequent one. Note: hands) and regressive (reverse. The recursion of the previous consonant is superimposed on the excursion of the previous one.) The assemblage of vowels often appears in non-standard speech and dialects ( hooligan-hooligan) 2) DISSIMILIATION is the opposite of assimilation (it occurs much less frequently): it consists in dissimilarity of articulation of neighboring consonants. Note: “to lead/lead” - [s] arose as a result of dissimilation [d]. Note: "doctor-doctor" 3) ACCOMMODATION is the interaction of neighboring vowels and consonants. (in Russian, for example, after soft consonants, vowels become more forward. Note: hatch, row). 4) SYNHARMONISM - harmony of consonants (reminiscent of vowel assemblies): diaeresis (abortions) - loss of sound in a complex sound combination (honest-honest), epenthesis (or prosthesis) - insertion of a sound in certain combinations (nrav-drav (gvor)) .
Question No. 25.
Syllable and syllable division
A syllable is a part of a beat consisting of one or more sounds, and not all sounds can form a syllable, i.e. be syllabic. For this purpose, instantaneous sounds, i.e., are not suitable as part of words. plosives and affricates. When studying syllables and syllable division, the concepts of (1) open/closed and (2) long/short syllables are important.1. Open A syllable is one that ends with a syllabic sound. for example all syllables Mother closed- one that ends with a non-syllabic sound, for example mother, give it. There are languages (English) that widely use open and closed syllables, and, on the other hand, languages in which only open syllables are possible. 2. For some languages, for example, for ancient Greek and Latin, for Arabic, the distinction between long and short syllables is essential. TO long syllables include open syllables with a long vowel at the top, as well as all closed syllables. Brief are only those open syllables whose apex is a short vowel. Thus, a stressed syllable can be pronounced with greater intensity - the so-called dynamic, or power, stress. It can be lengthened - quantitative, or quantitative, stress. It can be distinguished by raising or lowering the tone - musical, or tonic, stress. In a number of languages, qualitative stress is also observed - a special quality of sounds that make up a stressed syllable. Word stress can be free or related .1. Free stress is called stress in those languages in which it can stand on any (initial, middle, final) syllables of an accented word, as we see in Russian. Free stress can be motionless in the formation of word forms and derivative words or mobile. We have a fixed stress, for example, in the word peas: Wed peas, peas, peas etc. Fixed stress in a certain way characterizes not only a given word form, but also a given root morpheme. We have movable stress in the word beard: Wed beard, beard. But beard, beards... Stress mobility is observed in languages with free stress, where stress in one way or another characterizes certain non-root morphemes, certain grammatical forms and word-formation types. Sometimes there is more than one stress in one word. Usually in these cases the stresses are unequal. There is a certain gradation between them: The main thing stress opposes one or more secondary, weaker. Thus, the unity of the accented word created by the main stress is not violated. The concept of “phrase intonation” (or simply “intonation”) covers all phenomena observed within the framework of syntactic units - phrases and sentences (including one-word sentences). The most important component of intonation is melody, i.e. movement of the fundamental tone of the voice (raising and “lowering”), creating a tonal contour of the utterance and its parts and thus connecting and dividing our speech. Melodics and especially the second important component of intonation - intensity are used to emphasize certain parts of a statement. Thus, the concept of intonation includes phrasal stress The third component of intonation is rate of speech, its deceleration and acceleration.
Question No. 26
Stress and intonation
STRESS is the emphasis by voice, length and strength of any sound. This is achieved in different languages by various means: 1. Strength or intensity of articulation is a dynamic stress (force or expiratory): in Chinese, Dungan, Korean, Japanese. 2. Longitude of pronunciation is a quantitative beat. (quantitative, longitudinal): rare: modern modern Greek. There is a language in which these phenomena are combined together. Such is the Russian Literary language, where the ud. syllable is always the strongest and the longest, and in addition, only on ud. syllables can tone movement occur. 3. The movement of the vocal tone (ascending, descending or combinatorial) against the background of the neutral tone of other syllables is a tone ud, (melodic, musical): in the Czech language, where the strength of the ud. syllable is always the first, but it is usually short, and the next .behind it an unwed syllable may have longitude. If a vowel in a syllable stands out, it is a syllabic beat. (in Serbian, Swedish, Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese). If a syllable in a word is highlighted, it is a verbal oud. (in Russian). verbal beat can be constant if in all words of the language it falls on the same syllable (in Czech - on the first syllable, in French - on the last, in Polish - on the penultimate). In Russian variable (free) beat. it is not fixed and can fall on any syllable of a word and on any morpheme: prefix, root, suffix, ending. Ud.can perform a semantic-distinguishing function. So, according to the place of stress, they differ: 1. different words in all their forms: castle, castle and castle. 2.some shapes different words: food-food, squirrel-squirrel, burden-burden. 3. different forms of one word: legs-legs, hair-hair. The place of stress differs between the variants of words: 1.commonly used. and prof: extraction-extraction. 2. Literary and dialectal: cold-cold, wild-wild. 3. Literary and colloquial: quarter-quarter, kilometer-kilometer. 4.neutral and colloquial: verdict-verdict, busy-busy. 5. Literary and folk poetic: maiden-maiden, honest-honest. 6. Modern and obsolete: cemetery-cemetery, music-music. There are doublets when the difference in the location of the beat is not significant: barge-barge, circling-circling, flooded-flooded. When forming grammatical forms of the word, ud.can remain in the same place. Such a beat is called motionless. In Russian, 96% of words have a fixed clause (book, do). In words with movable stress, the stress is transferred from one syllable to another, from one morpheme to another (tree-trees, ears-ears, lake, take off-taken off). Unstressed words are possible in the speech stream. If such a word is adjacent to the subsequent stress, it is called proclitic (for-through); if it is adjacent to the previous stress, it is called enclitic (would have done). Phonetic words are combined within a phase, which gives a common intonation. Intonation is understood as a set of means of organizing sound speech. I. consists of: voice technique, stress, pauses, speech rate, voice timbre, speech rhythm. Rhythm is determined by the alternation of stresses. Rhythm is organized in a certain way (usually in poetic speech). Functions of intonation: 1.with its help, speech is divided into intonation-semantic segments. 2. I. draws up various syntactic constructions and types of offers. Int involves the expression of a person’s thoughts, will and feelings. Types and: exclaim, surprise, vocative, affirmative, convince (instruct), positive, pleading, inviting, exhorting, command, compare, intonation of interruptions or connections, list, indifferent (indifferent).
Question No. 27
The concept of phoneme
Phoneme- a separate sound of speech of a k.-l. language or dialect, considered in its function, i.e. as a means for differentiation and material for constructing significant units of language - words and morphemes, in abstraction from those features of its pronunciation and sound that do not cause semantic differences in words and morphemes ; basic phonetic unit of language. The term "F." originated in French linguistic literature in 1874 to designate the sound of speech. Russian linguist I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay back in 1870 expressed the idea of “a discrepancy between the physical nature of sounds and their meaning in the mechanism of language.” At the suggestion of his student N.V. Krushevsky, he designated the new term “F.” linguistic "equivalent" physical sound, that is, sound considered from the point of view of its properties essential for language; He contrasted f. as a “phonetic” element of language with material sound as an “anthropophonic” element. Initially, Baudouin de Courtenay and Krushevsky considered f. as phonetically indivisible parts of morphemes, which are members of traditional (historical) alternations and consist of one sound or a combination of sounds. Subsequently, Baudouin de Courtenay changed the content of F., denoting the term “F.” the unity of the members of “divergence” (otherwise known as “variation”), i.e., a living combinatorial (positional) alternation of pronunciation variants of sound that are not directly related to semantic differences between morphemes or words. In 1911, Baudouin de Courtenay’s student, the Russian linguist L. V. Shcherba, clarified his teacher’s thought, interpreting F. as the shortest sound distinguishers of words of a given language that can be distinguished from the flow of speech. At the same time, Shcherba distinguished in F., on the one hand, the main shade, the least dependent on combinatorial (positional) conditions and, in particular, pronounced in isolation, and on the other, its combinatorial (positional) replacements. In the "Course of General Linguistics" French. Linguist F. de Saussure, F. are considered as mutually opposed sound units forming in each language a system limited by a certain number of elements.
F. in itself does not express k.-l. meaning, but, differing from all other f. (and thereby contrasting with them), it is capable of serving as the only or main feature for distinguishing one significant unit of language (words or morphemes) from another, and, consequently, the primary element of the sound structure of these units. This is its linguistic function.
Divergences (variations) of f. as elements of the same morphemes in the composition of different words or word forms lead to the breakdown of f. into members of the f. - divergents (variants), so that the f. is a series of positionally alternating sounds - divergent (variational) row. Divergences are caused phonetically. position (position) of F. in each specific case . Therefore, divergences are not directly related to the difference in meaning: they only accompany other, directly significant differences in the sound structure of words and their forms (for example, replacing one ending or suffix with another, transferring stress from one syllable to another).
Question No. 28
The main stages of writing development
Writing itself, that is, descriptive writing, is writing associated with the use of graphic (from the Greek graphikos - “written”, “dramatic”) signs (pictures, letters, numbers) for recording and transmission sound language.
In the development of descriptive writing, several types have historically changed. Each of these types was determined by which elements of the sound language (entire messages, individual words, syllables or phonemes) served as a unit of written designation.
Usually four types of writing are consistently established: pictographic, ideographic, syllabic and alpha-sound (phonemographic). “This division is to a certain extent arbitrary, since none of the indicated types appears in a “pure” form. Each of them includes elements of another type, thereby forming mixed, transitional types of writing.” For example, pictography already contains the rudiments of ideography, and ideographic writing reveals numerous elements of syllabic and letter-sound writing. In turn, alphabetic writing often combines ideographic signs in texts - numbers, mathematical, physical and chemical formulas etc. But such a division makes it possible to see the sequence of main stages in the history of writing, to identify the uniqueness of the formation of its main types and thereby imagine the overall picture of the formation and development of descriptive writing.
There are other classifications of writing types. According to one of them, five varieties are established:
“1) phraseography is the most ancient type of writing, conveying the content of entire messages with symbolic and descriptive signs (phrasograms) without graphically dividing them into individual words;
2) logography - a subsequent type of writing, the graphic signs of which (logograms) convey individual words;
3) morphemography - a type of writing that arose on the basis of logographic, for the transmission by graphic signs (morphemograms) of the smallest significant parts of a word - morphemes;
4) syllabography, or syllabic writing, the signs of which (syllabograms) indicate individual syllables;
5) phonography (phonemography), or sound writing, the graphic signs of which (phonemograms) usually designate phonemes as typical sounds."
In accordance with another classification, the evolution of writing is presented in the form of the following diagram:
1) pre-writing: semasiography, including the most ancient conventional signs, pictography and primitive ideography;
2) writing itself: phonography, which appears in the following varieties: a) verbal-syllabic writing, b) syllabic writing, c) alphabetic writing.
However, these classifications have not yet become widespread in educational literature, where the traditionally established classification is more often used.
27. Articulatory characteristics of speech sounds. The concept of additional articulation.
When pronouncing a speech sound, the speech organs occupy a certain position and carry out certain movements. The work of all pronunciation organs of speech, the totality of movements of active organs that are necessary for the formation of a separate sound, is called articulation of speech sounds . We can talk, for example, about the articulation of the Russian vowel [ы], the French nasal vowel [o], the Polish continuous (affricative) consonant, etc.
Articulation of speech sounds is a complex phenomenon. There are three phases in articulation:
endurance and
Attack (or excursion) - this is the initial phase of articulation of a speech sound, during which the speech organs are brought into the position necessary to pronounce a given sound. For example, at the beginning of the articulation of the vowel [у], the lips open, round and protrude forward; in the initial phase of articulation of the consonant [v], the lower lip moves closer to the upper teeth, etc.
Excerpt - the main phase of articulation of speech sound - is the cessation (or slowdown) of the movement of the speech organs. At this moment of pronouncing the sound, the stream of exhaled air overcomes the barrier formed by the pronunciation organs, as a result of which the sound arises.
Recession (or metastasis) - This is the last phase of articulation of speech sound. At the moment of sound formation, the speech organs are brought to their original position or take the position necessary to pronounce the next sound.
If the attack is “the release of the speech organs to work,” then the shutter speed can be considered as their main work on the design of a given sound, its acoustic properties, and the indentation can be considered as “leaving speech organs from work."
The set of articulations of the sounds of a particular language is calledarticulatory base givenlanguage . Sound systems different languages differ both quantitatively and qualitatively. Consequently, the articulatory bases of languages also differ. “The structure of the speech organs is the same in all people, but these organs work differently during the speech process.”
Mastering individual articulations (and therefore the articulatory base) of a non-native language often causes significant difficulties. Thus, persons whose native language is Russian experience difficulties in mastering the articulation of nasal vowels of French, Polish and other languages, the so-called European, or middle (in terms of hardness/softness), consonant [l], soft consonants [z] and [ s], etc.
Many foreigners have difficulty pronouncing or are completely unable to pronounce the Russian vowel [ы]. For example, in the speech of a Frenchman the Russian word fast usually sounds like bistro(hence the French name of a small cafe, which returned to the Russian language in a form transformed into the French way).
Vowels and consonants. If a stream of air passes freely through the nasal or oral cavity, without encountering any obstacles on its way, then it is pronounced vowel. If a stream of air is forced to overcome one or another obstacle in one way or another, then it is pronounced consonant. Vowel sounds consist of a pure tone; overcoming an obstacle always creates noise, so consonants are noisy sounds.
Voiceless, voiced and sonorant consonants. If a consonant consists of one noise, then it is voiceless consonant; these are the Russian consonants [p, f, x, ts, ch, sh, t], etc. If a consonant sound consists of noise and tone, but noise predominates, then this is media; these are the Russian consonants [b, v, g, zh, d, z], etc. If, on the contrary, the tone prevails over the noise, then this sonorant consonant sound; These are the Russian sonorants [l, m, n, r].
Additional articulation , unlike the main one, does not change the characteristic noise of the consonant, which is determined primarily by the place, nature and method of overcoming the obstacle. One of the most common types of additional articulation in the Russian language is palatalization.
Palatalization (middle language, softening, middle language rapprochement). In addition to the main articulation of consonants, the rise of the middle part of the tongue to the hard palate (or iota articulation), sharply increasing the characteristic tone and noise.
In the history of the Proto-Slavic language, two palatalizations of back-lingual [ g, k, x] - the first (“hissing”) and the second (“whistling”). The first was the transition of these back linguals before front vowels into sibilants [ f, h, w], and the second - into whistling [ z, c, s]. Hence the morphonological alternations that are still preserved in the Russian language: leg - leg, hand - little hand, ear - ears and disappeared: leg - nose, hand - ruce etc.
