Improperly direct speech characteristics examples. Sentences with improperly direct speech. See what “improper-direct speech” is in other dictionaries

In the style of artistic speech, there are three types of speech transmission: direct speech, indirect speech and improperly direct speech. The term improperly direct speech combines two of its varieties: indirectly direct speech and depicted speech.

The competence of stylistics includes only improperly direct speech. But since this stylistic device has two varieties, one of which is a mixture of direct and indirect speech, it is necessary to briefly dwell on clarifying the characteristic features of these two forms of speech.

Direct speech

The term “direct speech” arose in connection with the transmission of someone else’s speech. In fact, direct speech is a quotation. From here this term was transferred to the style of artistic speech, where it is used to distinguish the speech of the author from the speech of the character. Therefore, direct speech is usually highlighted in quotation marks. For example:

"You want your money back, I suppose," said George, with a sneer. "Of course I did - I always did, didn't I," says Dobbin.

(W. M. Thackeray.)

As can be seen from this example, direct speech is introduced by the author’s remarks, formatted in different ways. 1

In direct speech, the characteristic features of the oral type of speech are usually typified. In direct speech, the literary and artistic device that is called speech characterization finds its expression most of all. Direct speech, thus, reflects the individual traits inherent in a particular character when using the common language. Therefore, in the direct speech of the heroes, all sorts of deviations from the norms of literary language most often appear. Here there are professionalisms, dialectisms, and incorrect word usage and syntactic organization of speech.

1 It is interesting to note in passing the different tense forms of the verb to say in the author’s remarks.

In a work of art in direct speech, if it pursues the goals of speech characterization of the characters, one can also find ways to graphically depict phonetic irregularities typical of a particular character. For example:

"Ain"t we been try in"to get work?" He clutched at Blessy's arm. "Peelin" spuds, - hustlin" the white sheets..."

"Ah don"t know," he replied. "A good tahrn, ah reckon."

In direct speech, as written speech, ways of interpreting the intonation of a statement play a huge role. This is where graphic design comes to the rescue. In works of art, the author uses a diverse range of graphic means to convey direct speech. We find here italics, boldface, digits, and other typographic fonts, as well as quotation marks, dashes, dots, exclamation points and other marks. All this serves the purpose of intonation design of the statement.

Along with graphic means, there are also lexical methods that help fill the gap between living and written speech. Thus, the intonation of direct speech is often suggested by the meaning of the introducing verb, as well as by adverbs in the function of adverbial manner of action to the introducing verb. For example: shout, cry, yell, gasp, babble, chuckle, murmur, sigh, call, exclaim, beg, implore, comfort, assurance, protest, object, command, admit, query, explain, etc.; eagerly, gaily, heartily, gently, testily, uneasily, cheerfully, shrewdly, etc.

The correct interpretation of the intonation pattern of a sentence and the entire statement as a whole is greatly helped by the author’s text, which usually precedes direct speech (sometimes concludes it). In dramatic works, this author's text acts as stage directions. For example:

Undershaft (scandalized): My dear!

Barbara (with intense conviction): I will never forgive you that. Stephen (embarrassed): Mother-

L o m a x (to Undershaft, strongly - remonstrant): Your own daughter, you know. (B. Shaw. Major Barbara.)

And, despite the variety of techniques that contribute to the correct interpretation of the intonation pattern of direct speech, yet, since it remains printed, there are different ways of interpreting those shades of meaning that are given to the main content of the utterance by means of intonation design. This is precisely what the work of the director and actors in revealing the images of a dramatic work is based on to a large extent.

Direct speech, that is, the actual statement of the characters in a literary work, may not be reproduced, but transmitted. For such transmission there is indirect speech.

Indirect speech

Indirect speech is, first of all, the author’s speech and, therefore, it is opposed to direct speech. Therefore, in this method of transmitting direct speech, words, expressions, and the syntactic pattern of a sentence are often replaced. That emotionality, which in direct speech is sometimes expressed by graphic means, in indirect speech receives lexical design, that is, it is explained by circumstances, attributive and other phrases.

Often indirect speech is only a transmission of a brief content of direct speech and therefore can have characteristic features typical of the author's syllable. For example:

Marshall asked the crowd to disperse and responded diggers to prevent any disturbance which would prolong the tragic farce of the rush for which the publication of inaccurate information was chiefly responsible. (C. S. Pritchard. The Roaring Nineties.)

Indirect speech here is introduced by the verbs ask and urge. If we imagine Marshall’s direct speech addressed to gold miners, then it is unlikely that any words from the passage just cited will find a place in this direct speech, with the possible exception of rush and disturbance. Here the author conveys Marshall's words, actually interpreting the content of the statement. This passage does not contain any indications of the character, features, or lively intonations of speech. Therefore the given

the example can generally be considered as an extreme case of indirect speech, otherwise called simply the author's description.

Improperly direct speech

In scientific linguistic literature, the term “improper-direct speech” is applied both to original ways of transmitting someone else’s speech, different from indirect speech, and to the author’s depiction of the feelings, experiences and thoughts of characters. The depiction of the hero’s internal state, his thoughts, feelings and experiences is a completely special phenomenon that, due to its specific features, should not be confused with the spoken speech and methods of conveying the spoken speech. Therefore, in improperly direct speech, indirect-direct speech is distinguished as one of the ways of conveying spoken, real-sounding speech, and depicted speech, which serves as a way of artistic depiction of the hero’s internal state, but is not a form of conveying the character’s speech.

The problem of improperly direct speech has been little developed in foreign linguistic literature. In German linguistic literature it is called erlebte Rede, uneigentliche Rede (Lerch and others), in English reported speech, represented speech (Jespersen), semi-indirect speech (Kruisinga), independent form of indirect discourse (Curme). In French literature the term 1e style indirect libre is used (Bally et al.).

Indirect-direct speech

In English fiction, a special technique of conveying someone else's speech has recently developed, occupying a transitional position from indirect to direct speech. The characteristic features of both speeches are so mixed in it that they can be distinguished only after a thorough linguistic analysis of each component of the utterance. The important thing here is that real-sounding speech is transmitted, i.e., previously spoken speech. We will call this mixed form of transmitting someone else's speech indirect-direct speech.

An interesting example can be cited from Galsworthy's novel "The Man of Property", where the character's direct speech, indirect-direct speech and indirect speech are intertwined in one coherent author's narration, conveying a dialogue between two characters:

Old Jolyon was on the alert at once. Wasn't the "man of property" going to live in his new house, then? He never alluded to Soames now but under this title.

"No" - June said - "he was not; she knew that he was not!"

How did she know?

She could not tell him, but she knew. She knew nearly for certain.

It was most unlikely; circumstances had changed!

The sentence that begins with the words Wasn"t the "man of property" is indirectly direct speech. From direct speech there is inverted word order, the abbreviation wasn"t and the separate adverb then. From indirect speech there is a shift in the tense forms of the verb - the past instead of the present. The question asked by the character seems to pass through the author’s mouth and receives a slight shade of conveying the question. After this comes the author's speech: Not never alluded. . ., followed by direct speech: “No” - framed by the introductory verb to say in the past tense and highlighted in quotation marks “No”, June said, and further, although highlighted in quotation marks, June’s speech is given in indirect-direct speech. The verb is in the past tense, consistent with the time plan corresponding to the author's narrative, which is maintained from the very beginning of the passage. This is also supported by the third person pronoun referring to a character whose direct speech can only be used in indirect speech, that is, in the speech of the author conveying the dialogue. Particularly interesting here is the technique of using indirect-direct speech, graphically designed as direct speech (quotation marks, dashes, etc.). Here are some more examples of indirect-direct speech:

Was over head and ears in love with her, Sir, and that it would be a good match on both sides.

Mr. Toodle, enlightened, shook his head, and said he had heerd it said and, for his own part, he did think, as Mr. Dombey was a difficult subject. (Ch. Dickens)

The convergence of indirect and direct speech in these examples is carried out by interspersing individual words, character-

thorny for the character (for example, the word heerd in the second example) or an image of the speech process (the word Sir in the first example).

In some cases, indirect-direct speech takes the position of direct speech, i.e. it is introduced by the author’s text and ends with the corresponding author’s remark, for example:

Aunt Juley spoke again Dear Soames was looking so well, hardly a day older than he did when dear Ann died, and they were all there together, dear Jolyon, and dear Swithin, and dear Roger. She paused and caught the tear which had climbed the pout on her right cheek. (J. Galsworthy.)

Indirect-direct speech is introduced by the sentence Aunt Juley spoke again and ends with the sentence She paused... Indirect-direct speech itself is realized by the introduction of the word dear, its repetition, non-union (so well, hardly a day...), polyunion (and) and others means of depicting direct speech.

A feature of the syntax of the English language in general, as is known, is the possibility of omitting conjunctions connecting the main clause with subordinate clauses. This phenomenon is especially common when transmitting a message through indirect speech. It is this circumstance that especially brings together the norms of direct and indirect speech in the English language and enriches the artistic and stylistic techniques of various ways of presenting someone else’s thoughts. Transitions from one type to another type of speech are not only facilitated here, but the boundaries between them are largely erased.

Indirect-direct speech found a unique application in the literature of the 18th century. In Fielding's novel "History of Tom Jones the Findling" this technique is formalized according to the graphic norms of direct speech, i.e., quotation marks. However, in terms of content and linguistic features, this is indirect speech, i.e. the speech of the author. This is explained by the general norms of the style of artistic speech of this period, according to which the sharp differences between written and oral types of speech were smoothed out. For example:

When dinner was over, and the servants departed, Mr. Allworthy began to harm. He set forth, in a long speech, the many iniquities of which Jones had been guilty, particularly those which this day has

brought to light; and concluded by telling him, "That unless he could clear himself of the charge, he was resolved to banish him from his sight for ever."

The response of the character to whom this speech was addressed is conveyed in exactly this way: first, indirect speech, i.e., the author’s rendering of the content of the statement, and then quoting part of this statement in indirect speech:

His heart was, besides, almost broken already; and his spirits were so sunk, that he could say nothing for himself; but acknowledge the whole, and, like a criminal in despair, threw himself upon mercy; concluding, "that though he must own himself guilty of many follies and inadvertencies, he hoped he had done nothing to deserve what would be to him the greatest punishment in the world."

Mr. Allworthy's answer also follows this pattern:

Allworthy answered, "That he had forgiven him too often already, in compassion to his youth, and in hopes of his amendment: that he now found he was an abandoned reprobate, and such as it would be criminal in any one to support and encourage ""Nay," said Mr. All-worthy to him, "your audacious attempt to steal away the young lady, calls upon me to justify my own character in punishing you."

And then follows a long speech by Mr. Alworthy, no different either lexically or syntactically from indirect speech. Interestingly, quotation marks combine both forms of indirect-direct speech and direct speech, and indirect-direct speech always begins with the conjunction That, which is written with a capital letter.

Thus, the boundaries between indirect speech, indirect-direct speech and direct speech in Fielding's language (as in the language of other writers of this period) are very unclear. In some cases, only quotation marks serve as a means of distinguishing indirect speech from indirect-direct speech. An explanation for this can be found in the history of the development of literary English.

As will be shown below, in the 18th century, the norms of the style of artistic speech do not allow the use of the characteristic features of the oral type of speech with its lively intonation, elliptical turns, fragmentation, non-conjunction and other typical features. It is enough, as an example, to take any excerpt from a work of art of the 18th century, in which the direct speech of a character is conveyed, in order to be convinced that the difference between the norms of the

There is no spoken or written language in them. Oral speech was usually adjusted to the norms of written speech. Therefore, the distinction between indirect and direct speech was erased in the style of artistic speech. Indirect speech placed in quotation marks, if the morphological aspect of the utterance is changed, can become direct. The more writers began to use the features of lively colloquial speech in the language of literary works, the more favorable conditions were created for the introduction of indirect-direct speech.

In modern English fiction this technique has become widespread. Types of indirect-direct speech multiply and take on different forms. For some writers, dialogues in the form of indirect-direct speech prevail over the usual form of dialogue. T. Dreiser uses this technique especially often, and the characteristic individual manner of this writer is to convey the dialogue in a short, laconic form, in which, however, the author’s words inevitably appear. Here are some examples from Dreiser's "An American Tragedy":

Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He couldn't. In consequence he was quick to suggest a walk ... Didn't Clyde want to go?

She must be back in Kansas city again. He could have sworn to it. He had seen her near Eleventh and Baltimore, or thought he had. Had his mother heard anything from her?

Recently, the technique of indirect-direct speech has begun to penetrate into the newspaper style of speech. However, the function of this stylistic device in newspaper reports is different from its function in the style of artistic speech. In the latter it has a figurative-emotional function; in newspaper reports it is used to convey someone else's speech in the most concise form. Here you can avoid introducing words and quotation marks: you can slightly shorten the statement. The following example is from a report in the Daily Worker newspaper

under the heading "Eden to Defy MPs on Hanging" can serve as an illustration of an indirect-direct question in a newspaper style:

Mr. Silverman, his Parliamentary language scarcely concealing his bitter disappointment, accused the Government of breaking its pledge and of violating constitutional properties.

Was the Government basing its policy, not on the considered judgment of the House of Commons, but on the considered judgment of the House of Lords?

Would it not be a grave breach of constitutional duty not to give the House a reasonable opportunity of exercising its rights under the Parliament Act?

"Wait for the terms of the Bill," was Eden's reply.

Only the temporal shift of verbs and the absence of quotation marks indicate indirect speech. The word order and, obviously, all the phraseology is designed according to Mr. Silverman's direct speech.

Thus, this technique also went beyond one style of speech.

Pictured speech

Recently, in English fiction, the technique of the author's depiction of other people's thoughts and feelings, which we will call depicted speech, has become widespread 1.

1 N. G. Chernyshevsky drew attention to the peculiar linguistic technique of conveying the hero’s internal state. In his article entitled “Childhood and adolescence. War stories. The work of Count L.N. Tolstoy, St. Petersburg, 1856,” Chernyshevsky writes: “Count Tolstoy’s attention is most of all drawn to how some feelings and thoughts develop from others; he is interested in observing how a feeling, directly arising from a given situation or impression, subject to the influence of memories and the power of combinations represented by the imagination, passes into other feelings, again returns to its previous starting point and sleeps and again wanders, changing along the entire chain of memories; how a thought, born of the first sensation, leads to other thoughts, is carried further and further, merges dreams with actual sensations, dreams of the future with reflection on the present.” (Chernyshevsky N. G. Literary critical articles, State publishing house of artistic literature, M, 1939, pp. 246 - 247)

Assessing the individual creative manner of L. N. Tolstoy in describing the mental state of the heroes, Chernyshevsky writes that “... that side of Count Tolstoy’s talent, which gives him the opportunity to capture these mental monologues, amounts to

In the depicted speech, as well as in indirect-direct speech, two plans of presentation are realized: the author’s plan and the character’s plan. For example:

Anette! Ah! but between him and Anette was the need for that wretched divorce suit! and howl

"A man can always work these things, if he"ll take it on himself," Jolyon had said.

But why should he take the scandal on himself with his whole career as a pillar of the law at stake? It was not fair! It was quixotic!

In this passage you can find a transmission of Soames Forsythe’s thoughts, direct speech, and elements of the author’s speech. A depicted speech begins this passage, followed by direct speech introduced by the author's Jolyon had said... and then again a depicted speech conveying Soames's thoughts.

In the depicted speech, the characteristic features of inner speech find their typified, generalized expression. As you know, inner speech performs only one function of language: the realization of thought. It has no communicative function. Inner speech is a category not of linguistics, but of psychology. Transforming into depicted speech, inner speech becomes a category of linguistics (stylistics). Depicted speech, typifying the characteristic features of internal speech, acquires the function of communication. Conveying thoughts and feelings, it is actually the author’s interpretation of these thoughts. However, these two narrative planes are so closely intertwined that it is almost impossible to separate one from the other. They are organically welded together in a new quality.

His talent is special, a strength peculiar only to him” (ibid., p. 249).

As can be seen from the above quotes, Chernyshevsky notices something new in Tolstoy’s creative style. These are the characteristic features that further determine the essence of the reception of the depicted speech. Here is “the capture of the dramatic transitions of one feeling into another, and the analysis of the “mental emergence of thoughts,” and the desire to convey “half-dreamy, half-reflective couplings of concepts and feelings that grow, move, change before our eyes.”

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face, the verb is usually in the past tense; The hero's plan is usually realized by syntactic means of language: inverted word order in interrogative sentences, fragmentation of the statement, the presence of emotional coloring of the statement, usually expressed by graphic means, silence, connecting constructions, isolation and other features of direct speech.

Depicted speech, compared to indirect-direct speech, is much more fragmented, inconsistent, and abrupt. She is always more emotional, if only because she expresses the feelings and experiences of the hero. Indirect-direct speech, depicting actual speech, is always more logically designed. Pictured speech, by depicting unexpressed thoughts and feelings, can handle the logical construction of an utterance with much greater freedom. For example,

An idea had occurred to Soames. His cousin Jolyon was Irene"s trustee, the first step would be to go down and see him at Robin Hill. Robin Hill! The odd - the very odd feeling those words brought back. Robin Hill - the house Bosinney had built for him and Irene - the house they had never lived in - the fatal house! And Jolyon lived there now! H"m! (J. Galsworthy.)

In this passage, it is interesting to trace the gradual transition from the author’s narration to the depicted speech and further - the transition of the depicted speech to the character’s direct speech. All these transitions are made barely noticeable. There are no introductory author's words signaling a transition from one type of transmission of the hero's thoughts and feelings to another in the passage. Nevertheless, the extreme cases are quite clearly delineated. The first and second sentences are the author's narrative. However, already at the end of the second sentence, Robin Hill's repetition implements the transition to the depicted speech. Then the depicted speech begins. The author expresses the thoughts and feelings of the hero - Soames. An emotional repetition appears, exclamatory sentences, evaluative words - the fatal house - all this characterizes the hero’s plan. On the other hand, the tense form of the verbs had built, brought; had never lived - lived there now, as well as the third person pronoun him convey the author’s narrative plan. Finally,

The last sentence, expressed by a single interjection N "m, can be considered as a spoken word of the interjection, i.e. direct or indirect-direct speech.

Indirect-direct speech allows such deviations from the norm of indirect speech that bring it closer to direct speech. In other words, we can say that indirect-direct speech is a method of bringing indirect speech closer to direct speech in the author’s narration. Depicted speech is a way of figurative and aesthetic transformation of a psychological phenomenon known as inner speech. It serves to convey the thoughts and feelings of the hero in a form accessible to external perception.

These techniques were most developed in the works of writers of the 19th-20th centuries. Thackeray, Dickens, Bronte, Austen, Galsworthy, Jack London and many other classics of English and American literature use indirect speech in different ways. Indirect-direct speech and depicted speech have their own patterns. So, for example, indirect-direct speech is almost always introduced, that is, it is mostly preceded by words and expressions indicating that speech has been uttered. Indirect direct speech in the 18th century still retains the syntactic features of indirect speech, although it is formalized as direct speech; in subsequent periods of development of techniques of improperly direct speech, indirectly direct speech is formalized as indirect, but has the morphological, lexical and syntactic features of direct speech.

The depicted speech can be introduced by the author with special words and phrases; it can appear unnoticed in the author’s narrative. Sometimes the depicted speech is inserted into the author's narrative in the middle of a statement, sometimes even in the middle of a sentence. She may begin a passage; it can complete the author's description.

Depicted speech is usually introduced by verbs expressing thoughts, feelings, moods: feel, think, wonder, etc. For example:

As he slogged through the baking streets he thought of Christine. What was she doing? Was she thinking of him, perhaps, a little? And

what of the future, her prospects, their chance of happiness together (Cronin, The Citadel.) Or "Why weren't things going well between them?" he thought.(A. Maltz. Selected Stories

The depicted speech is introduced, respectively, by the verbs to think, to wonder.

In the following passage, the speech depicted is presented in the form of a question and introduced by the phrase he was asking himself:

Over and over he was asking himself: would she receive him? Would she recognize him? What should he say to her?

(A St. John A d with o with k, The Last Chapter.)

Each writer has his own individual artistic manner of using improperly direct speech. The ways of introducing it into the author’s narrative are also used differently. 1 Galsworthy, for example, is characterized by subtle transitions from the author’s narration to indirect-direct and depicted speech. Dreiser, on the other hand, is characterized by introducing words and phrases. For example: Clyde began to understand that. . ., moving further into the depicted speech. Or - He had told himself. . . Sometimes, however, Dreiser uses other methods of introducing the depicted speech. For example, in the passage below, the emotional state of the hero of the work, strengthened and emphasized by the repetition of the adverb so, creates the appropriate conditions for the transition to the depicted speech. The emotional state of the hero seems to evoke a flow of thoughts and feelings that are conveyed by the author without any introductory words or phrases.

And yet the world was so full of so many things to do - so many people were so happy and so successful. What was he to do? Which way to turn? What one thing to take up and master - something that would get him somewhere. He couldn't say. He didn't know exactly. And these peculiar parents were in no way sufficiently equipped to advise him.

Improperly direct speech with its varieties is a product of the style of artistic speech. Until the last

1 See the interesting article by N.Yu. Shvedova “On the question of the national and individual in the writer’s language.” “Issues of linguistics” No. 2, 1952.

At that time, the scope of its application in literary English was limited to the style of artistic speech. However, as mentioned above, a type of improperly direct speech, indirectly direct speech, is already beginning to penetrate other styles, in particular the style of newspaper reports. The possibility of a wider use of this technique is not excluded, that is, its use in other styles of English literary speech.

Questions in narrative text

Among the stylistic devices based on the unique use of features of oral speech is the use of interrogative sentences in a narrative text. These questions should not be confused with rhetorical questions (see section “Rhetorical Questions”). It is known that the most common situation for a question is a dialogue, in other words, questions are usually used in live, conversational speech, in direct communication. A question asked usually requires an answer. The answer is expected from the person to whom the question is addressed. The question itself indicates that the answer is unknown to the questioner.

Interrogative sentences in narrative text significantly change the nature of this type of sentence.

An interrogative sentence in a monologue is a means of attracting the attention of the reader or listener to the statement that follows the question. In other words, such sentences are a means of giving an emphatic tone to the statement. Here are some examples from Byron's poem "Don Juan":

For what is left the poet here? For Greeks a blush -for

Greece a tear. He wishes for "a boat" to sail the deeps - Of ocean? - No,

And starting, she awoke, and what to view? Oh, Powers of Heaven. What dark eye meets she there? "t is - "t is her

father"s - fix"d upon the pair.

He was "free to confess" - (whence comes this phrase? Is"t English? - "t is only parliamentary).

From the analysis of the above examples, it is clear that not all of them are the same in the function they perform. So

the question in the second example is used only to create a pun. In the following example, an interrogative sentence is used to emphasize the heroine's confusion. The last example largely simulates normal dialogue. Here, as it were, the poet’s conversation with the reader is reproduced (the reader’s perplexed question and the author’s explanation).

The interrogative sentence in Dickens's story "A Christmas Carol" has a completely different character:

Scrooge knew he was dead? Of course he did. How could it be otherwise? Scrooge and he were partners for I don't know how many years.

This use of an interrogative sentence creates the impression that the question is being asked by the reader. The author repeats the question asked and gives an answer.

The interrogative sentence in the above example creates a special style of narration, known in English stylistics as “familiar style” (as if a friendly conversation between the writer and the reader). Therefore, the interrogative sentence itself in this text is constructed according to the norms of oral speech, i.e., instead of inverted, direct word order is used.

Interrogative sentences are often used in oratory with the same function of emphasis. Sometimes such questions remain unanswered. This does not make them rhetorical questions, the essence of which lies in the fact that they are not questions at all, but statements framed in the syntactic form of an interrogative sentence. The questions that are now being discussed are really questions, and if sometimes they remain unanswered, it is because the speaker or writer forces his audience to answer the question posed. These are, for example, questions from a speech by Presley, one of the characters in Norris’s novel “Octopus”:

How long must it go on? How long must we suffer? Where is the end? What is the end?

Unanswered interrogative sentences often follow one another.

“The specificity of interrogative sentences,” writes prof. P.S. Popov, - as acts characterizing the moment of

The transition from what we know to what we do not yet know is reflected in the mutual connection of the question with the answer. The interrogative sentence is connected with the sentence representing the answer much more closely than even the conclusion from two premises (judgments), because the two premises have meaning in themselves; The meaning of interrogative sentences is only to search, that is, to ultimately achieve an answer. In this regard, statements in the form of a question in a dialogue bring the conversation participants much closer together than an exchange of opinions in the form of statements-judgments. Therefore, we say that the question always addresses someone and is more saturated with moments of emotional

3. STYLISTIC USE OF INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

In the system of syntactic stylistic means of the English language, there are two techniques based on the fact that their syntactic form does not correspond to their logical content.

These two techniques are called: a) rhetorical question and b) litotes. In a rhetorical question, the syntactic form of an interrogative sentence is used to make a statement. In litotes, the form of negation serves to affirm.

A rhetorical question aims to enhance the emotional coloring of a statement; The purpose of litotes is to reduce the strength of emotional coloring or weaken the strength of a positive attribute.

Let's look at each of these stylistic devices separately.

Direct speech characterized by the following features: a) accurately reproduces someone else’s statement; b) accompanied by the author's words. The purpose of the author's words is to establish the very fact of someone else's speech and indicate to whom it belongs. The author's words can also explain, for example, under what conditions someone else's speech was delivered, to whom it was addressed, they can evaluate it, etc. For example: “What does this mean? - he [Dubrovsky] asked Anton angrily, who was running towards him. “Who are they and what do they need?” (P.).

The author's words and direct speech form a special syntactic structure, consisting of independent parts connected in meaning and intonation. The connection between both parts of the construction can be closer or less close, which depends on their relative position, the lexical meaning of the predicate verb in the author’s words introducing direct speech, etc. Wed:

a) Marina sighed: “You see! But this, of course, is mischief” (M. G.). After the author’s words, a dividing pause is possible here (indicated in writing by a dot), which emphasizes the weakness of the intonational connection between both parts of a complex structure and their syntactic independence.

b) Finally, I told him: “Well, well, Savelich! That’s enough, let’s make peace, it’s my fault” (P.). The author's words form a sentence that does not have semantic completeness: with the transitive verb said, an addition is required, indicating the object of the statement. Such an object of utterance can be expressed by a member of a sentence, a subordinate clause (in indirect speech) or direct speech (as in the example given).

Direct speech can convey:
1) a statement from another person, for example: “Guys who have weapons, get ready here,” Dubava (N. Ostr.) commanded the lying man in a whisper;
2) the words of the author himself, spoken by him earlier, for example: “You didn’t fight with him? - I asked. “Circumstances, right, separated you?” (P.);
3) unspoken thoughts, for example: I look after him and think: “Why do such people live?” (M.G.).

The author's words can occupy different positions in relation to the author's speech. They can:
1) precede direct speech, for example: Ivan Ignatich opened the door, proclaiming solemnly: “Brought!” (P.);
2) follow direct speech, for example: “Do you know grandpa, mom?” - the son speaks to his mother (N.);
3) be included in direct speech, for example: “Belikov lived in the same house where I live,” Burkin continued, “on the same floor, door against door” (Ch.);
4) include direct speech, for example: Only then did I straighten up and think: “Why is father walking around the garden at night?” - when everything calmed down around (T.).

Author's words usually contain a verb of expression or thought (say, speak, ask, answer, think, etc.). Sometimes nouns with specified meanings (words, exclamation, question, etc.) act as words introducing direct speech, for example: Speeches began to be heard everywhere: “It’s time to get to the buckshot!” (L.). Less often, the same role is played by verbs that denote the speaker’s feelings, his internal state, movements, etc. (to be happy, to be surprised, to sigh, to smile, to point, etc.), for example: “Muzgarko, are you sane? - the old man was surprised. “The convoy overslept!” (M.-S.).

Indirect speech, along with direct speech, is a way of conveying someone else’s words in speech. Unlike direct speech, sentences with indirect speech serve to convey only the meaning of what another person said, without preserving the stylistic features of the original statement. From a syntactic point of view, indirect speech acts as a subordinate clause in a complex complex, where the role of the main clause is played by the author’s words. The subordinate clause containing indirect speech follows the main one and is attached to the predicate with the help of conjunctions and relative words characteristic of explanatory subordinate clauses, like what, in order, as if, supposedly, as if, where, where, when, from where, which, which etc. Union what indicates that the speaker is confident in the reliability of the information, and is used when replacing a narrative sentence in someone else's speech.

· They told me it was time to get ready for the road.

Unions as if, as if indicate that the speaker doubts the accuracy of the information being conveyed.

· Yesterday they said that before that he drank a whole barrel of wine.

Relative words what, which, where, when, where etc. are used when replacing an interrogative sentence of direct speech.

· A woman came up to me and asked where the nearest pharmacy was.

In indirect speech, personal and possessive pronouns and persons of the verb are used in relation to the person conveying someone else’s speech:

· Then he said that he would be back in an hour. “Then he said, 'I'll be back in an hour.'

· She asked me to pick her up in the evening. “She asked: “Come pick me up in the evening.”

Addresses, interjections, onomatopoeia, etc., used in someone else’s speech, are omitted in indirect speech, and their meaning is conveyed by words that are similar in meaning:

· I shouted, “Hey! Are you, by any chance, lost? “I called out to him and asked if he was lost.

Sometimes in indirect speech the literal expressions of someone else's speech are preserved. In writing this is conveyed using quotation marks.

Improper-straight, or non-author's speech

- a method of transmitting someone else’s speech, which uses elements straight(mass media indirect(see) speeches. This is the speech of the narrator, permeated at the same time with vocabulary, meanings (semantics), syntactic constructions of the speech of the character - the source of information, his intonations, feelings, thoughts. What makes it similar to direct speech is the reproduction of the speaker’s manner of speech (his genuine expressions, structure of speech), and to indirect speech – the fact that in it the personal forms of verbs and pronouns are used on behalf of the narrator. But no introducing verbs of speech or thought are used ( "said that..."; "reported that..."), i.e. there is no formal signal of transition from the author's speech to someone else's. N.-p. R. is not highlighted in the text by the author’s words, and is not introduced as a subordinate part of a complex sentence.

The author, as it were, merges the speech of his hero with his own, adapts his own manner of speaking to his speech style. Eg: He remembered how, as a child, during a thunderstorm, he would run out into the garden with his head uncovered, and two white-haired girls with blue eyes would chase after him and they would be drenched in the rain; they laughed with delight, but when a strong clap of thunder was heard, the girls clung trustingly to the boy, he crossed himself and hurried to read: “Holy, holy, holy...”.

monologue and dialogic speech -

Types of speech activity by nature of participation speaker And addressee in a situation of verbal communication. In M.r. the speaker or writer is active. The addressee may not directly participate in the speech act: he may be distant in space and time. His reaction to the speaker's speech is not provided for by this form of speech. In M.r. the speaker is the manager of linguistic means, their choice, combination. A monologue is dominated by narrative sentences and does not involve questions and answers. In D.b. The speaker and the addressee participate, changing roles. At the same time, each of them can use the speech material of the other, constructing their replica based on the speech of the second participant.

Develop fragments of lessons on the topic “Punctuation marks in direct speech and dialogue” at school based on the use of psychological mechanisms and pedagogical patterns of knowledge acquisition by students. Expand the concepts of “punctuation” and “central and peripheral punctuation systems.” Name the basic principles of Russian punctuation, punctuation marks and their main functions. Explain the punctuation marks in the first four paragraphs of the above text.

· know the features of dialogue and punctuation marks in it;

· be able to distinguish between the placement of punctuation marks in direct speech and dialogue, and draw up sentence diagrams;

· work on the culture of oral and written speech, expressive reading.

· improve students’ skills in finding sentences with direct speech and dialogue in context,

· apply the conditions for choosing punctuation marks in sentences of these constructions.

SKILLS ACQUIRED:

· be able to see the dialogue,

· be able to punctuate dialogue.

FORMS OF ORGANIZATION OF CHILDREN'S WORK:

· collective,

· independent,

· methods of research work: observation using technical teaching aids and formulating appropriate conclusions.

FORMS OF ORGANIZATION OF TEACHER'S WORK:

· explanation,

· monitoring the work of students,

· analysis of students' work,

· differentiated tasks,

· control over the completion of tasks.

LESSON PLAN.

I. ORGANIZATIONAL MOMENT.

II. SYNTACTIC WORK WITH PROBLEM STATEMENT. (Slide number 2.)

III. MESSAGE OF THE TOPICS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON. (Slide 3)

IV. WORK ON THE TOPIC.

· DICTIONARY-SPELLING and LEXICAL WORK. (Slides 4-7.)

· OBSERVATION, ANALYSIS OF PUNCTUATION SIGNS IN DIRECT SPEECH AND DIALOGUE. (Slides 8-9.)

V. CONSOLIDATING WHAT LEARNED. (Slides 10-11.)

VI. HOMEWORK. (Slide number 12.)

VII. RESULT OF THE LESSON. (SLIDE No. 13.)

PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION.

· See the technological map for assessing the author's development.

· See photos of the lesson.

· Lesson summary.

Within the same objective narrative (Erform), there is also a variation when the hero’s voice begins to prevail over the author’s voice, although formally the text belongs to the narrator. This is an improperly direct speech, which is distinguished from an improperly authorial narrative precisely by the predominance of the hero’s voice within the framework of Erform. Let's look at two examples.

“Anfisa showed neither surprise nor sympathy. She didn't like these boyish antics of her husband. They are waiting for him at home, they are dying, they can’t find a place for themselves, but he rode and rode, but Sinelga came to his mind - and he galloped off. It’s as if this same Sinelga will fall through the ground if you leave there a day later.” (F. Abramov. Crossroads)

“Yesterday I drank a lot. Not exactly “in shreds”, but firmly. Yesterday, the day before yesterday and the third day. All because of that bastard Banin and his dearest sister. Well, they split you into your labor rubles! ...After demobilization, I moved with a friend to Novorossiysk. A year later he was taken away. Some bastard stole spare parts from the garage" (V. Aksenov. Halfway to the Moon) /

As you can see, with all the differences between the characters here, F. Abramov and V. Aksenov have a similar principle in the relationship between the voices of the author and the character. In the first case, it seems that only the first two sentences can be “attributed” to the author. Then his point of view is deliberately combined with Anfisa's point of view (or "disappears" in order to give a close-up of the heroine herself). In the second example, it is generally impossible to isolate the author’s voice: the entire narrative is colored by the hero’s voice, his speech characteristics. The case is especially difficult and interesting, because... the intelligentsia vernacular characteristic of the character is not alien to the author, as anyone who reads Aksenov’s entire story can be convinced of. In general, such a desire to merge the voices of the author and the hero, as a rule, occurs when they are close and speaks of the desire of writers to position themselves not as a detached judge, but as a “son and brother” of their heroes. M. Zoshchenko called himself the “son and brother” of his characters in “Sentimental Stories”; “Your son and brother” was the title of V. Shukshin’s story, and although these words belong to the hero of the story, in many ways Shukshin’s author’s position is generally characterized by the narrator’s desire to get as close as possible to the characters. In studies of linguistic stylistics of the second half of the twentieth century. this tendency (going back to Chekhov) is noted as characteristic of Russian prose of the 1960s - 1970s. The confessions of the writers themselves are consistent with this. “...One of my favorite techniques - it has even become, perhaps, repeated too often - is the author’s voice, which seems to be woven into the hero’s internal monologue,” admitted Yu. Trifonov. Even earlier, V. Belov thought about similar phenomena: “...I think that there is some thin, elusively unsteady and right to exist line of contact between the author’s language and the language of the depicted character. A deep, very specific separation of these two categories is just as unpleasant as a complete merging of them.”

Non-authorial narration and non-authorial direct speech are two varieties of Erform that are close to each other. If it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them sharply (and researchers themselves admit this difficulty), then we can distinguish not three, but two varieties of Erform and talk about what predominates in the text: “the author’s plan” or “the character’s plan” ( according to the terminology of N.A. Kozhevnikova), that is, in the division we have adopted, the author’s own narrative or two other varieties of Erform. But it is necessary to distinguish at least these two types of authorial activity, especially since, as we see, this problem worries the writers themselves.

Icherzählung – first person narration– no less common in the literature. And here one can observe no less expressive possibilities for the writer. Let's consider this form - Icherzählung (according to the terminology accepted in world literary studies; in Russian sound - “icherzählung”).

“What a pleasure it is for a third-person narrator to switch to the first! It’s like having small and inconvenient thimble glasses and suddenly giving up, thinking and drinking cold raw water straight from the tap” (O. Mandelstam. Egyptian Brand. L., 1928, p. 67).

To the researcher... this succinct and powerful remark says a lot. Firstly, it strongly recalls the special essence of verbal art (compared to other types of speech activity)... Secondly, it testifies to the depth of aesthetic awareness choice one or another leading form of narration in relation to the task that the writer has set for himself. Thirdly, it indicates the necessity (or possibility) and artistic fruitfulness transition from one narrative form to another. And, finally, fourthly, it contains recognition of a certain kind of inconvenience, which is fraught with any deviation from the uncorrectable explication of the author’s “I” and which, nevertheless, fiction for some reason neglects.

“Uncorrected explication of the author’s “I”” in the terminology of a modern linguist is a free, unrestrained direct author’s word, which O. Mandelstam probably had in mind in this particular case - in the book “Egyptian Brand”. But first-person narration does not necessarily presuppose precisely and only such a word. And here at least three varieties can be distinguished. Let us agree to call the one who is the bearer of such a narrative storyteller(unlike the narrator in Erform). True, in the specialized literature there is no unity regarding the terminology associated with the narrator, and one can find word usage that is the opposite of what we proposed. But here it is important not to bring all researchers to a mandatory consensus, but to agree on terms. In the end, it is not a matter of terms, but of the essence of the problem.

So, three important types of first-person narration - Icherzählung , allocated depending on who the narrator is: author-narrator; a narrator who is not a hero; hero-storyteller.

1. Author-narrator. Probably, it was precisely this form of narration that O. Mandelstam had in mind: it gave him, a poet writing prose, the most convenient and familiar, and also, of course, consistent with a specific artistic task, the opportunity to speak as openly and directly as possible in the first person. (Although one should not exaggerate the autobiographical nature of such a narrative: even in lyric poetry, with its maximum subjectivity compared to drama and epic, the lyrical “I” is not only not identical to the biographical author, but is not the only opportunity for poetic self-expression.) The brightest and a well-known example of such a narrative is “Eugene Onegin”: the figure of the author-narrator organizes the entire novel, which is structured as a conversation between the author and the reader, a story about how the novel is written (was written), which thanks to this seems to be created before the eyes of the reader. The author here also organizes relationships with the characters. Moreover, we understand the complexity of these relationships with each of the characters largely thanks to the author’s peculiar speech “behavior.” The author's word is capable of absorbing the voices of the characters (in this case, the words hero And character are used as synonyms). With each of them, the author enters into a relationship of either dialogue, polemic, or complete sympathy and complicity. (Let’s not forget that Onegin is the author’s “good... friend”; at a certain time they became friends, they were going to go on a trip together, i.e. the author-narrator takes some part in the plot. But we must also remember about the conventions of such a game, for example: “Tatiana’s letter is before me, / I cherish it sacredly.” On the other hand, one should not identify the author as a literary image and with the real - biographical - author, no matter how tempting it may be (a hint of a southern exile and some other autobiographical features).

Bakhtin apparently first spoke about this verbal behavior of the author, about the dialogical relationship between the author and the characters, in the articles “The Word in the Novel” and “From the Prehistory of the Novel Word.” Here he showed that the image of a speaking person, his words, is a characteristic feature of the novel as a genre and that heteroglossia, the “artistic image of language,” even the many languages ​​of the characters and the author’s dialogical relationship with them are actually the subject of the image in the novel.

2. Hero-storyteller. This is the one who takes part in events and narrates them; thus, the apparently “absent” author in the narrative creates the illusion of authenticity of everything that happens. It is no coincidence that the figure of the hero-storyteller appears especially often in Russian prose starting from the second half of the 30s of the 19th century: this may also be explained by the increased attention of writers to the inner world of a person (the confession of the hero, his story about himself). And at the same time, already at the end of the 30s, when realistic prose was being formed, the hero - an eyewitness and participant in the events - was called upon to postulate the “plausibility” of what was depicted. In this case, in any case, the reader finds himself very close to the hero, sees him as if in close-up, without an intermediary in the person of the omniscient author. This is perhaps the largest group of works written in the Icherzählung manner (if anyone wanted to make such a calculation). And this category includes works where the relationship between the author and the narrator can be very different: the closeness of the author and the narrator (as, for example, in “Notes of a Hunter” by Turgenev); complete “independence” of the narrator (one or more) from the author (as in “A Hero of Our Time,” where the author himself only has a preface, which, strictly speaking, is not included in the text of the novel: it did not exist in the first edition). You can name in this series “The Captain’s Daughter” by Pushkin and many other works. According to V.V. Vinogradov, “the narrator is the speech creation of the writer, and the image of the narrator (who pretends to be the “author”) is a form of literary “acting” of the writer.” It is no coincidence that the forms of narration in particular and the problem of the author in general are of interest not only to literary scholars, but also to linguists, such as V.V. Vinogradov and many others.

An extreme case of Icherzählung is tale form, or tale. In such a work, the hero-narrator is not a bookish or literary person; this is, as a rule, what is called a man from the bottom, an inept storyteller, to whom alone the right to lead the story is “given” (i.e., the entire work is structured as a story of such a hero, and the author’s word is absent altogether or serves only as a small frame - as, for example , in N. S. Leskov’s story “The Enchanted Wanderer”). The reason for the name of a tale is that, as a rule, it is an imitation of spontaneous (unprepared) oral speech, and often in the text we see the author’s desire to convey, even in writing, the features of oral pronunciation (telling). And this is an important feature of the skaz form; it was initially noted as the main one by the first researchers of skaz - B.M. Eikhenbaum, (article “How Gogol’s “Overcoat” was Made,” 1919), V.V. Vinogradov (work “The Problem of the Skaz in Stylistics,” 1925). However, then M. M. Bakhtin (in the book “Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics”, 1929), and perhaps simultaneously with him and independently of him, other researchers came to the conclusion that the main thing in a skaz is not the orientation towards oral speech, but the work of the author someone else's word, someone else's consciousness. “It seems to us that in most cases the tale is introduced precisely for the sake of someone else's voice, a socially defined voice, bringing with it a range of points of view and assessments that are exactly what the author needs. In fact, the narrator is introduced, but the narrator is not a literary person and in most cases belongs to the lower social strata, to the people (which is precisely what is important to the author) - and brings with him oral speech.”

The concept of point of view remains to be clarified, but now it is important to pay attention to two more points: the “absence” of the author in the work and the fact that all of it constructed as a story by a hero who is extremely distant from the author. In this sense, the absent author’s word, distinguished by its literary nature, appears as an invisible (but assumed) opposite pole in relation to the hero’s word – the characteristic word. One of the striking examples of a fairy tale work can be called Dostoevsky’s novel “Poor People”, built in the form of letters from a poor official Makar Devushkin and his beloved Varenka. Later, about this first novel, which brought him literary fame, but also caused reproaches from critics, the writer remarked: “They don’t understand how you can write in such a style. They are accustomed to seeing the writer’s face in everything; I didn't show mine. And they have no idea that Devushkin is speaking, not me, and that Devushkin cannot say otherwise.” As we see, this half-joking admission should convince us that the choice of the form of narration occurs consciously, as a special artistic task. In a certain sense, the tale is the opposite of the first form of Icherzählung we named, in which the author-storyteller reigns with full rights and about which O. Mandelstam wrote. The author, it is worth emphasizing this again, works in the tale with someone else’s word - the word of the hero, voluntarily renouncing his traditional “privilege” of an omniscient author. In this sense, V.V. was right. Vinogradov, who wrote: “A tale is an artistic construction in a square...”.

A narrator who cannot be called a hero can also speak on behalf of “I”: he does not take part in events, but only narrates about them. Narrator who is not a hero, appears, however, as part of the artistic world: he, too, like the characters, is the subject of the image. As a rule, he is endowed with a name, a biography, and most importantly, his story characterizes not only the characters and events about which he narrates, but also himself. Such, for example, is Rudy Panko in Gogol’s “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” - a figure no less colorful than the characters participating in the action. And his very manner of narration can perfectly clarify the above-mentioned position about the event of narration: for the reader this is truly an aesthetic experience, perhaps no less powerful than the events themselves that he is talking about and that happen to the heroes. There is no doubt that for the author, creating the image of Rudy Panka was a special artistic task. (From Mandelstam’s statement above, it is clear that in general the choice of a narrative form is never accidental; another thing is that it is not always possible to obtain the author’s interpretation of a particular case, but it is necessary to think about it every time.) This is how Gogol’s tale sounds:

“Yes, that was it, and I forgot the most important thing: when you, gentlemen, come to me, then take the straight path along the main road to Dikanka. I put it on the first page on purpose so that they could get to our farm faster. I think you’ve heard enough about Dikanka. And that’s to say that the house there is cleaner than some pasichnikov’s kuren. And there’s nothing to say about the garden: you probably won’t find anything like this in your St. Petersburg. Having arrived in Dikanka, just ask the first boy you come across, herding geese in a soiled shirt: “Where does the beekeeper Rudy Panko live?” - “And there!” - he will say, pointing his finger and, if you want, he will take you to the very farm. However, I ask you not to put your hands back too much and, as they say, to feint, because the roads through our farmsteads are not as smooth as in front of your mansions.”

The figure of the narrator makes it possible for a complex author’s “game”, and not only in fairy tale narration, for example, in M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita”, where the author plays with the “faces” of the narrator: he emphasizes his omniscience, possession of complete knowledge about the characters and about everything that happened in Moscow (“Follow me, reader, and only me!”), then he puts on a mask of ignorance, bringing him closer to any of the passing characters (they say, we didn’t see this, and what we didn’t see, that we don't know). As he wrote in the 1920s. V.V. Vinogradov: “In a literary masquerade, a writer can freely change stylistic masks throughout one work of art.”

As a result, we present the definition of skaz given by modern scientists and taking into account, it seems, all the most important observations about skaz made by predecessors: “... a skaz is a two-voice narrative that correlates the author and the narrator, stylized as an orally pronounced, theatrically improvised monologue of a person, implying a sympathetic audience, directly related to or oriented towards a democratic environment.”

So, we can say that in a literary work, no matter how it is constructed from the point of view of narration, we always find the author’s “presence”, but it is found to a greater or lesser extent and in different forms: in a 3rd person narration, the narrator is closest to the author, in the tale the narrator is the most distant from him. “The narrator in a tale is not only the subject of speech, but also the object of speech. In general, we can say that the stronger the narrator’s personality is revealed in the text, the more he is not only the subject of speech, but also the object of it.” (And vice versa: the more inconspicuous the narrator’s speech, the less specific it is, the closer the narrator is to the author.)

To better distinguish between the subject of speech (the speaker) and the object of speech (what is being depicted), it is useful to distinguish between the concepts subject of speech And subject of consciousness. Moreover, not only the appearance of the hero, an event (action), etc. can be depicted, but also - which is especially important for the genre of the novel and in general for all narrative prose - the speech and consciousness of the hero. Moreover, the hero’s speech can be depicted not only as direct, but also in refraction - in the speech of the narrator (be it the author, narrator or storyteller), and therefore in his assessment. So, the subject of speech is the speaker himself. The subject of consciousness is the one whose consciousness is expressed (transmitted) in the speech of the subject. It's not always the same thing.

1. The subject of speech and the subject of consciousness coincide. This includes all cases of the author’s direct word (the author’s narration itself). We also include here fairly simple cases when there are two subjects of speech and two subjects of consciousness in the text.

He thinks: “I will be her savior.

I will not tolerate the corrupter

Fire and sighs and praises

He tempted the young heart;

So that the despicable, poisonous worm

Sharpened a lily stalk;

To the two-morning flower

Withered still half-open.”

All this meant, friends:

I'm shooting with a friend.

As we can see, the signs of direct speech are indicated, and Lensky’s speech itself is separated from the author’s. The author's voice and the hero's voice do not merge.

2. A more complex case. There is one subject of speech, but two consciousnesses are expressed (the consciousness of two): in this example, the author and the hero.

He sang love, obedient to love,

And his song was clear,

Like the thoughts of a simple-minded maiden,

Like a baby's dream, like the moon

In the deserts of the serene sky,

Goddess of secrets and tender sighs.

He sang separation and sadness,

AND something, And foggy distance,

And romantic roses...

Please note that here, in the last three verses, the author is clearly ironic about Lensky’s poetry: the words in italics are thus separated from the author as alien, and in them one can also see an allusion to two literary sources. (An allusion is a hidden hint at an implied, but not directly indicated literary source. The reader must guess which one.) “Fog in the distance” is one of the common romantic formulas, but it is possible that Pushkin also had in mind the article by V.K. Kuchelbecker 1824 “On the direction of our poetry, especially lyrical, in the last decade.” In it, the author complained that the romantic elegy had replaced the heroic ode, and wrote: “The pictures are the same everywhere: moon, which - of course - sad And pale, rocks and oak groves where they have never been, a forest behind which a hundred times one imagines the setting sun, the evening dawn, occasionally long shadows and ghosts, something invisible, something unknown, vulgar allegories, pale, tasteless personifications... in features - fog: fogs over the waters, fogs over the forest, fogs over the fields, fog in the writer’s head.” Another word highlighted by Pushkin - “something” - indicates the abstractness of romantic images, and perhaps even “Woe from Wit”, in which Ippolit Markelych Udushev produces a “scientific treatise” called “A Look and Something” - meaningless , empty essay.

Everything that has been said should lead us to an understanding of the complex, polemical relationship between the author and Lensky; In particular, this polemic relates not so much to the personality of the youngest poet, unconditionally beloved by the author, but to romanticism, to which the author himself had recently “paid tribute,” but with which he has now decisively parted ways.

Another more difficult question is: who owns Lensky’s poems? Formally – to the author (they are given in the author’s speech). Essentially, as M.M. writes. Bakhtin in the article “From the Prehistory of the Novel Word”, “poetic images... depicting Lensky’s “song” do not at all have a direct poetic meaning here. They cannot be understood as direct poetic images of Pushkin himself (although the formal characterization is given by the author). Here Lensky’s “song” characterizes itself, in its own language, in its own poetic manner. Pushkin’s direct characterization of Lensky’s “song” - it is in the novel - sounds completely different:

So he wrote dark And sluggishly...

In the above four lines, the song of Lensky himself sounds, his voice, his poetic style, but they are permeated here with the parodic and ironic accents of the author; Therefore, they are not isolated from the author’s speech either compositionally or grammatically. Before us really image Lensky's songs, but not poetic in the narrow sense, but typically novelistic image: this is an image of a foreign language, in this case an image of a foreign poetic style... The poetic metaphors of these lines (“like a baby’s dream, like the moon”, etc.) are not here at all primary means of image(what they would be like in a direct, serious song by Lensky himself); they themselves become here subject of the image, namely, a parody-stylizing image. This novel image someone else's style... in the system of direct author's speech... taken in intonation quotes, namely, parodic and ironic" .

The situation is more complicated with another example from Eugene Onegin, which is also given by Bakhtin (and after him by many modern authors):

“Whoever lived and thought cannot

Do not despise people in your heart;

Whoever felt it is worried

Ghost of irrevocable days:

There's no charm for that

That serpent of memories

He is gnawing at remorse.

One might think that we have before us the direct poetic maxim of the author himself. But already the following lines:

All this often gives

Great charm to the conversation, -

(the conventional author with Onegin) cast a slight objective shadow on this maxim (i.e. we can and even should think that Onegin’s consciousness is depicted here - serves as an object - E.O.). Although it is included in the author’s speech, it is built in the area of ​​action of Onegin’s voice, in Onegin’s style. Before us again is a novelistic image of someone else's style. But it was built a little differently. All the images in this passage are the subject of the image: they are depicted as Onegin’s style, as Onegin’s worldview. In this respect, they are similar to the images of Lensky's song. But, unlike this latter, the images of the given maxim, being the subject of the image, themselves depict, or rather, express the author’s thought, for the author largely agrees with it, although he sees the limitations and incompleteness of the Onegin-Byronic worldview and style. Thus, the author... is much closer to Onegin’s “language” than to Lensky’s “language”... he not only depicts this “language”, but to a certain extent he himself speaks this “language”. The hero is in the zone of possible conversation with him, in the zone dialogical contact. The author sees the limitations and incompleteness of the still fashionable Onegin language-worldview, sees his funny, isolated and artificial face (“Muscovite in Harold’s cloak”, “A complete vocabulary of fashionable words”, “Isn’t he a parody?”), but at the same time he can express a whole series of significant thoughts and observations only with the help of this “language”... the author really talking with Onegin..."

3. The subjects of speech are different, but one consciousness is expressed. Thus, in Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor,” Pravdin, Starodum, and Sofia essentially express the author’s consciousness. It is already difficult to find such examples in literature since the era of romanticism (and this example is taken from the lecture of N.D. Tamarchenko). Speeches of the characters in the story by N.M. Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” also often reflects one thing – the author’s – consciousness.

So we can say that author's image, author(in the second of the three meanings above), author's voice– all these terms really “work” when analyzing a literary work. At the same time, the concept of “author’s voice” has a narrower meaning: we are talking about it in relation to epic works. The image of the author is the broadest concept.

Humanity could not have made the progress we have today without the ability to communicate verbally with each other. Speech is our wealth. The ability to communicate with people of both one’s own and another nationality allowed countries to reach the current level of civilization.

Someone else's speech

In addition to one’s own words, there is such a thing as “other people’s speech.” These are statements that do not belong to the author, but are included in the general conversation. The words of the author himself are also called someone else's speech, but only those phrases that he said either in the past or plans to say in the future. Mental, so-called “inner speech” also refers to someone else’s speech. It can be oral or written.

As an example, let’s take a quote from Mikhail Bulgakov’s book “The Master and Margarita”: “What do you think?” Berlioz whispered anxiously, and he himself thought: “But he’s right!”

Transmitting someone else's speech

Over time, special ways of transmitting someone else’s speech have appeared in the language:

1. Direct speech.
2. Indirect speech.
3. Dialogue.
4. Citation.

Direct speech

If we consider methods of transmitting someone else's speech, then this one is intended for verbatim reproduction of the form and content of the conversation.

Direct speech constructions consist of two parts - these are the words of the author and, in fact, direct speech. The structure of these structures may be different. So, how can there be ways of transmitting someone else's speech? Examples:

• First come the words of the author, followed by direct speech.

Masha entered the hotel room, looked around, and then turned to Kolya and said: “Great room! I would even stay here to live.”

• Here, direct speech comes first, and only then the words of the author.

“Great room! I would even stay here,” Masha said to Kolya when she entered the hotel room.

• The third method allows you to alternate direct speech with the words of the author.

“Great room!” Masha admired when she entered the hotel room. Then she turned to Kolya: “I would like to stay here.”

Indirect speech

Third person speech can be conveyed in a variety of ways. One of them is the use of indirect speech. Indirect speech is complex sentences with Thus, the transmission of someone else's speech can be carried out. Examples:

Masha told Kolya that the hotel room was excellent, and she would even stay in it.

They greeted each other, and Andrei told Mikhail Viktorovich that he was very glad to see him.

Means of communication

The choice of means of communication is called the choice of a means of communication. It depends on the original sentence and on The message can be narrative, motivating or interrogative.

• The conjunctions most often used in a declarative sentence are “that,” “as if,” or “as if.” For example: A student said: “I will give a report at the seminar on the environmental problems of the region.” / The student said that he would make a report at the seminar on environmental problems in the region.
• In an incentive sentence, the conjunction “so that” is used. For example: The school director ordered: “Take part in the city exhibition.” / The school director ordered that we take part in the city exhibition.
• In an interrogative sentence, the means of communication can be the particle “li”, or double particles “li... whether”. For example: Students asked the teacher: “When do you need to take the coursework in your subject?” / The students asked the teacher when they would have to take the coursework.

In indirect speech, it is customary to use pronouns and verbs from the speaker’s position. When sentences are translated from direct speech to indirect speech, the word order in them often changes, and the loss of individual elements is also noted. Most often these are interjections, particles or For example: “Tomorrow it may be very cold,” my friend said. / My friend suggested that tomorrow it will be very cold.

Improperly direct speech

When considering methods of transmitting someone else's speech, we should also mention such a phenomenon as improperly direct speech. This concept includes both direct and indirect speech. An utterance of this kind retains, in whole or in part, both the syntactic and lexical features of speech and conveys the speaker’s manner.

Its main feature is the transmission of the narrative. This is from the perspective of the author, and not from the character himself.

For example: “She measured the room with her steps, not knowing what to do. Well, how can I explain to my brother that it wasn’t her who told everything to her parents? They themselves won’t tell about it. But who will believe her! How many times did she expose his tricks, but here ... We need to come up with something."

Dialogue

Another way of transmitting someone else's speech is a conversation between several people, expressed in direct speech. It consists of replicas, that is, the transmission of the words of each participant in the conversation without changing them. Each spoken phrase is connected with others in structure and meaning, and punctuation marks do not change when transmitting someone else's speech. The author's words may appear in the dialogue.

For example:

Well, how do you like our number? - asked Kolya.

Great room! - Masha answered him. - I would even stay here to live.

Types of dialogues

There are several basic types of dialogues. They convey conversations between people and, like a conversation, can be of a different nature.

• The dialogue may consist of questions and answers to them:

Great news! When will the concert take place? - asked Vika.

In a week, on the seventeenth. He will be there at six o'clock. You should definitely go, you won’t regret it!

• Sometimes the speaker is interrupted mid-sentence. In this case, the dialogue will consist of unfinished phrases that the interlocutor continues:

And at this time our dog began to bark loudly...

Ah, I remembered! You were still in a red dress then. Yes, we had a great time that day. I'll have to do it again sometime.

• In some dialogues, the speakers' remarks complement and continue the general idea. They talk about one common subject:

“Let’s save up a little more money and we’ll be able to buy a small house,” said the father of the family.

And I will have my own room! I must have my own room! And the dog! We'll get a dog, right, mom? - asked seven-year-old Anya.

Certainly. Who else can guard our house? - Mom answered her.

• Sometimes people talking can agree or refute each other’s statements:

“I called her today,” he told his sister, “I think she felt bad.” The voice is weak and hoarse. I got really sick.

“No, she’s already better,” the girl answered. - The temperature subsided, and my appetite appeared. He will soon be completely well.

This is what the basic forms of dialogue look like. But don’t forget that we don’t communicate in only one style. During a conversation, we combine various phrases and situations. Therefore, there is a complex form of dialogue, containing various combinations of it.

Quotes

When a schoolchild is asked: “Name the ways of conveying someone else’s speech,” he most often remembers the concepts of direct and indirect speech, as well as quotes. Quotations are the verbatim reproduction of a statement by a specific person. Quote phrases to clarify, confirm or refute someone's thoughts.

Confucius once said: “Choose a job you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life.”

A quotation as a way of conveying someone else’s speech helps to demonstrate one’s own education, and sometimes drive the interlocutor into a dead end. Most people know that certain phrases were once uttered by someone, but they don’t know who those people were. When using quotes, you need to be sure of their authorship.

Finally

There are various ways to convey someone else's speech. The main ones are direct and indirect speech. There is also a method that includes both of these concepts - this is improperly direct speech. Conversations between two or more people are called dialogue. And this is also the transmission of someone else's speech. Well, to quote Socrates: “The only true wisdom is in the realization that we essentially know nothing.”

Compare the three sentences that are given in N. S. Valgina’s book “Syntax of the Modern Russian Language” to illustrate what improperly direct speech is:

• Friends visited the theater and unanimously declared: “I really liked it.” us this performance!
• Friends visited the theater and unanimously declared that them I really liked this performance.
• Friends visited the theater. I really liked it them this performance!

In the first case, we have a construction in which the words of friends are framed as direct speech. Neither the content nor the form of their statement has changed: what is enclosed in quotation marks fully reproduces their speech.

The second line contains a construction with indirect speech. Someone else's speech is conveyed using a subordinate clause, which is joined using the conjunction WHAT. The content of the statement is preserved, but the exclamatory intonation is lost.

The third option is very similar to the first, but there is no colon or quotation marks. In addition, the first person pronoun NAM changed to the third person pronoun IM, as in indirect speech. This method of entering someone else's text is called improperly direct speech.

Its essence lies in the fact that it almost completely preserves the lexical and syntactic features of someone else’s statement, the manner of speech of the speaker, the emotional coloring characteristic of direct speech, but it is conveyed not on behalf of the character, but on behalf of the author, the narrator. In this case, the author connects the thoughts and feelings of his hero with his own, merges his speech with his speech. This technique is often used in fiction and journalism, when the author needs to show his hero from the inside, to let the reader hear his inner voice. Read an example of improperly direct speech from L. N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace”:

Nikolai Rostov turned away and, as if looking for something, began to look at the distance, at the water of the Danube, at the sky, at the sun. How beautiful the sky seemed, how blue, calm and deep! How tenderly and glossily the water shone in the distant Danube! (L. Tolstoy)

4. Dialogue The next way to include someone else's speech in the author's text is through dialogue.

Someone else's sentences written in this way completely retain both form and content. Direct or indirect speech is used by the authors when it is necessary to reproduce a phrase belonging to any one character, and dialogue (from the Greek dialogos - conversation) is used in cases where it is necessary to convey several replicas of characters talking to each other.

Exercise

1. And his father told him_
_You, Gavrilo, are great!_
(Ershov)

2. “Everything will be decided,” he thought, approaching the living room, “I’ll explain to her myself.” (Pushkin).

3. He sat down in a chair, put his cane in the corner, yawned and announced_ _that it was getting hot outside_ (Lermontov).

4. I didn’t ask my faithful companion why he didn’t take me straight to those places (Turgenev).

5. Suddenly the driver began to look to the side and, finally, taking off his hat, turned to me and said_ _Master, would you order me to come back?_ (Pushkin).

6. _No, no_ _she repeated in despair_ it’s better to die, it’s better to go to a monastery, it’s better to go for Dubrovsky_.

7. _Oh, my fate is deplorable! _
The princess tells him
If you want to take me
Then deliver it to me in three days
My ring is made of okiyan_.
(Ershov)

8. I answered with indignation that I, an officer and a nobleman, could not enter into any service with Pugachev and could not accept any orders from him (according to Pushkin).

9. Sometimes I tell myself_ _No, of course not! The little prince always covers the rose with a glass cap at night, and he takes great care of the lamb..._ (Antoine de Saint-Exupéry).

10. The girl tells him_
_But look, you’re gray;
I'm only fifteen years old:
How can we get married?
All the kings will begin to laugh,
Grandfather, they will say, took his granddaughter!_
(Ershov).

11. He reported_ _that the governor ordered his officials on special assignments to wear spurs_ (according to Turgenev).

12. He sat down next to me and began to tell me what a famous surname and important upbringing he had (according to Leskov).

13. _It’s all the same, Petrusha_ my mother answered me_ this is your imprisoned father; kiss his hand and may he bless you..._ (Pushkin).

14. It used to be that you stand, stand in the corner, so that your knees and back hurt, and you think_ _Karl Ivanovich forgot about me; It must be calm for him to sit on an easy chair and read hydrostatics - but what does it feel like for me?_ _ and you begin, to remind yourself of yourself, slowly opening and closing the damper or picking the plaster from the wall (Tolstoy).

15. _You are not our sovereign_ answered Ivan Ignatich, repeating the words of his captain._ You, uncle, are a thief and an impostor!_ (Pushkin).

16. The next day, at breakfast, Grigory Ivanovich asked his daughter whether she still intended to hide from the Berestovs (Pushkin).