Battles of Russian troops with Batu Khan. Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus'. Battle of Legnica

Battle of Kalka.

At the beginning of the 13th century. There was a unification of the nomadic Mongol tribes, which began their campaigns of conquest. The tribal union was headed by Genghis Khan, a brilliant commander and politician. Under his leadership, the Mongols conquered Northern China, Central Asia, and steppe territories stretching from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea.

The first clash between the Russian principalities and the Mongols occurred in 1223, during which a Mongol reconnaissance detachment descended from the southern slopes of the Caucasus mountains and invaded the Polovtsian steppes. The Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help. Several princes responded to this call. The Russian-Polovtsian army met the Mongols on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. In the ensuing battle, the Russian princes acted uncoordinatedly, and part of the army did not participate in the battle at all. As for the Polovtsians, they could not withstand the onslaught of the Mongols and fled. As a result of the battle, the Russian-Polovtsian army was completely defeated, the Russian squads suffered heavy losses: only every tenth warrior returned home. But the Mongols did not invade Rus'. They turned back to the Mongolian steppes.

Reasons for the Mongol victories

The main reason for the victories of the Mongols was the superiority of their army, which was well organized and trained. The Mongols managed to create the best army in the world, which maintained strict discipline. The Mongol army consisted almost entirely of cavalry, so it was maneuverable and could cover very long distances. The Mongol's main weapon was a powerful bow and several quivers of arrows. The enemy was fired at from a distance, and only then, if necessary, selected units entered the battle. The Mongols made extensive use of military techniques such as feinting, flanking, and encirclement.

Siege weapons were borrowed from China, with which the conquerors could capture large fortresses. Conquered peoples often provided military contingents to the Mongols. The Mongols attached great importance to reconnaissance. An order was emerging in which, before the proposed military actions, spies and intelligence officers penetrated into the country of the future enemy.

The Mongols quickly dealt with any disobedience, brutally suppressing any attempts at resistance. Using the policy of “divide and rule,” they sought to fragment the enemy forces in the conquered states. It was thanks to this strategy that they managed to maintain their influence in the occupied lands for a fairly long period of time.

Batu's campaigns in Rus'

Batu's invasion of North-Eastern Rus' (Batu's 1st campaign)

In 1236, the Mongols undertook a grandiose campaign to the west. The army was led by the grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu Khan. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, the Mongol army approached the borders of North-Eastern Rus'. In the fall of 1237, the conquerors invaded the Ryazan principality.

The Russian princes did not want to unite in the face of a new and formidable enemy. The Ryazan residents, left alone, were defeated in a border battle, and after a five-day siege, the Mongols took the city itself by storm.

Then the Mongol army invaded the Principality of Vladimir, where it was met by a grand ducal squad led by the son of the Grand Duke. In the battle of Kolomna, the Russian army was defeated. Taking advantage of the confusion of the Russian princes in the face of impending danger, the Mongols successively captured Moscow, Suzdal, Rostov, Tver, Vladimir and other cities.

In March 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River between the Mongols and the Russian army, gathered throughout North-Eastern Rus'. The Mongols won a decisive victory, killing the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri in battle.

Then the conquerors headed towards Novgorod, but, fearing to get stuck in the spring thaw, they turned back. On the way back, the Mongols took Kursk and Kozelsk. Kozelsk, called the “Evil City” by the Mongols, offered especially fierce resistance.

Batu's campaign against Southern Rus' (Batu's 2nd campaign)

During 1238 -1239. The Mongols fought with the Polovtsians, after their subjugation they set out on a second campaign against Rus'. The main forces here were sent to Southern Rus'; In North-Eastern Rus', the Mongols captured only the city of Murom.

The political fragmentation of the Russian principalities helped the Mongols quickly seize the southern lands. The capture of Pereyaslavl and Chernigov was followed by the fall of the ancient Russian capital, Kyiv, on December 6, 1240, after fierce fighting. Then the conquerors moved to the Galicia-Volyn land.

After the defeat of Southern Rus', the Mongols invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and reached Croatia. Despite his victories, Batu was forced to stop, since he did not receive reinforcements, and in 1242 he completely recalled his troops from these countries.

In Western Europe, which was awaiting imminent ruin, this was perceived as a miracle. The main reason for the miracle was the stubborn resistance of the Russian lands and the damage suffered by Batu’s army during the campaign.

Establishment of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

After returning from the western campaign, Batu Khan founded a new capital in the lower reaches of the Volga. The state of Batu and his successors, covering lands from Western Siberia to Eastern Europe, was called the Golden Horde. All the surviving Russian princes who were at the head of the devastated lands were summoned here in 1243. From the hands of Batu they received labels - letters of authorization for the right to govern one or another principality. So Rus' fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde.

The Mongols established an annual tribute - “exit”. Initially the tribute was not fixed. Its supply was monitored by tax farmers, who often simply robbed the population. This practice caused discontent and unrest in Rus', so in order to fix the exact amount of tribute, the Mongols conducted a population census.

The collection of tribute was monitored by the Baskaks, supported by punitive detachments.

The great devastation caused by Batu, subsequent punitive expeditions, and heavy tribute led to a protracted economic crisis and the decline of the Russian land. During the first 50 years of the yoke, there was not a single city in the principalities of North-Eastern Rus', a number of crafts disappeared in other places, serious demographic changes occurred, the area of ​​settlement of the Old Russian people decreased, and the strong Old Russian principalities fell into decay.

Lecture 10.

The struggle of the peoples of North-Western Rus' against the aggression of Swedish and German feudal lords.

Simultaneously with the Tatar-Mongol invasion of the Russian people in the 13th century. had to wage a fierce fight against the German and Swedish invaders. The lands of Northern Rus' and, in particular, Novgorod attracted invaders. They were not ruined by Batu, and Novgorod was famous for its wealth, since the most important trade route connecting Northern Europe with the countries of the East passed through it.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' began in 1237, when Batu’s cavalry invaded the territory of the Ryazan lands. As a result of this attack, Rus' found itself under the yoke of two centuries. This interpretation is set out in most history textbooks, but in reality the relationship between Russia and the Horde was much more complicated. In the article, the yoke of the Golden Horde will be considered not only in the usual interpretation, but also taking into account its controversial issues.

Classmates

Beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

For the first time, the squads of Rus' and the Mongol hordes began to fight at the end of May 1223 on the Kalka River. The Russian army was led by the Prince of Kiev Mstislav, and the Horde was commanded by Jebe-noyon and Subedei-bagatur. Mstislav's army was not only defeated, but practically completely destroyed.

In 1236, the Tatars began another invasion of the Polovtsians. In this campaign they won many victories and by the end of 1237 they came close to the lands of the Ryazan principality.

Mongol conquest of Rus', which took place from 1237 to 1242, is divided into two stages:

1. 1237 – 1238 – invasion of the northern and eastern territories of Rus'.
2. 1239 – 1242 – campaign in the southern territories, which led to further yoke.

Chronology of events up to 1238

The Horde cavalry was commanded by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of the famous Genghis Khan, who had about 150 thousand soldiers under his command. Together with Batu, Subedei-Baghatur, who fought with the Russians earlier, took part in the invasion. The invasion began in the winter of 1237, it exact date unknown. Some historians claim that the attack occurred in late autumn of the same year. Batu's cavalry moved at high speed across the territory of Rus' and conquered cities one after another.

The chronology of Batu’s campaign against Rus' is as follows:

• Ryazan was defeated in December 1237 after a six-day siege.
• Before the conquest of Moscow, Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir tried to stop the Horde near Kolomna, but was defeated.
• Moscow was conquered in January 1238, the siege lasted four days.
• Vladimir. After an eight-day siege, it was conquered in February 1238.

Capture of Ryazan - 1237

At the end of the autumn of 1237, an army of about 150 thousand under the leadership of Batu Khan invaded the territory of the Ryazan principality. Arriving at Prince Yuri Igorevich, the ambassadors demanded tribute from him - a tenth of what he owned. They were refused, and the Ryazan residents began to prepare for defense. Yuri turned to Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir for support, but received no help.

At the same time, Batu defeated the vanguard of the Ryazan squad and in mid-December 1237 besieged the capital of the principality. The first attacks were repulsed, but after the invaders used battering rams, the fortress, which held out for 9 days, was defeated. The Horde invaded the city, carrying out a massacre.

Despite the fact that the prince and almost all the inhabitants of the fortress were killed, the resistance of the Ryazan residents did not stop. Boyar Evpatiy Kolovrat gathered an army of about 1,700 people and set off in pursuit of Batu’s army. Having caught up with her, Kolovrat’s warriors defeated the rearguard of the nomads, but later they themselves fell in an unequal battle.

Battle of Kolomna, capture of Moscow and Vladimir - 1238

After the fall of Ryazan, the Tatars attacked Kolomna, a city that at that time was an important strategic center. Here was the vanguard of the troops of Prince Vladimir, commanded by Vsevolod. Having entered into an unequal battle with Batu’s troops, the Russians suffered a crushing defeat. Most of them died, and Vsevolod Yuryevich with the surviving squad retreated to Vladimir.

Batu reached Moscow in the third decade of 1237. At this time, there was no one to defend Moscow, since the base of the Russian army was destroyed near Kolomna. At the beginning of 1238, the Horde burst into the city, completely destroyed it and killed everyone, young and old. Prince Vladimir was taken prisoner. After the defeat of Moscow, the invading troops set off on a campaign against Vladimir.

At the beginning of February 1238, an army of nomads approached the walls of Vladimir. The Horde attacked him from three sides. Having destroyed the walls using battering devices, they burst into the city. Most of the residents were killed, including Prince Vsevolod. And the eminent townspeople were locked in the Church of the Virgin Mary and burned . Vladimir was plundered and destroyed.

How did the first invasion end?

After the conquest of Vladimir, almost the entire territory of the northern and eastern lands came under the power of Batu Khan. He took cities one after another: Dmitrov, Suzdal, Tver, Pereslavl, Yuryev. In March 1238, Torzhok was taken, which opened the way for the Tatar-Mongols to Novgorod. But Batu Khan decided not to go there, but sent his army to storm Kozelsk.

The siege of the city lasted seven weeks and ended only when Batu offered to surrender to the defenders of Kozelsk in exchange for saving their lives. They accepted the conditions of the Tatar-Mongols and surrendered. Khan Batu did not fulfill his word and gave the order to kill everyone, which was done. Thus ended the first invasion of the Tatar-Mongols on the lands of Rus'.

Invasion of 1239 – 1242

A year and a half later, in 1239, a new campaign of troops under the command of Batu against Rus' began. This year the main events take place in Chernigov and Pereyaslav. Batu did not advance as quickly as in 1237, due to the fact that he was actively fighting against the Polovtsians in the Crimean lands.

In the fall of 1240, Batu leads the army directly to Kyiv. The ancient capital of Rus' was unable to hold out resistance for long, and in early December 1240 the city fell under the onslaught of the Horde. There was nothing left of him; Kyiv was actually “wiped off the face of the earth.” Historians speak of particularly brutal atrocities committed by the invaders. The Kyiv that has survived to this day, has absolutely nothing in common with the city destroyed by the Horde.

After the destruction of Kyiv, the Tatar troops were divided into two armies, one headed for Galich, and the other for Vladimir-Volynsky. After capturing these cities, the Tatar-Mongols set off on a European campaign.

Consequences of the invasion of Rus'

All historians give an unambiguous description of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion:

• The country was divided and was completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
• Rus' paid tribute to the Khanate every year (in people, silver, gold and furs).
• The state stopped its development due to the difficult situation.

The list can be continued further, but the general picture of what is happening is already clear.

In short, this is exactly how the period of the Horde yoke in Rus' is presented in the official historical interpretation found in textbooks. Next, we will consider the arguments given by L.N. Gumilyov, a historian-ethnologist and orientalist. A number of important issues will also be touched upon, giving an understanding of how much more complex the relationship between Russia and the Horde was than is commonly believed.

How did nomads conquer half the world?

Scientists often raise the question of, how nomadic people, who just a few decades ago lived in a tribal system, was able to create a huge empire and conquer almost half the world. What goals did the Horde pursue in its campaign against Rus'? Historians claim that the purpose of the invasion was to plunder the lands and subjugate Rus', and they also say that the Tatar-Mongols achieved this.

But in reality this is not entirely true, because in Rus' there were three very rich cities:

• Kyiv is one of the largest European cities, the capital of ancient Rus', captured and destroyed by the Horde.
• Novgorod is the largest trading city and, at that time, the richest. It did not suffer at all from the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.
• Smolensk, like Novgorod, was a trading city, and in terms of wealth it was compared with Kiev. He also did not suffer from the Horde.

It turns out that two of the three largest cities of ancient Rus' did not suffer in any way from the Golden Horde.

Explanations of historians

If we consider the historians' version - to destroy and plunder as the main goal of the Horde's campaign against Rus', then there is no logical explanation. Batu captures Torzhok, the siege of which takes two weeks. This is a poor city, its main task was the protection and defense of Novgorod. After the capture of Torzhok, Batu he is going not to Novgorod, but to Kozelsk. Why do you need to waste time and energy besieging an unnecessary city, instead of just going to Kozelsk?

Historians give two explanations:

1. Heavy losses during the capture of Torzhok did not allow Batu to go to Novgorod.
2. The move to Novgorod was prevented by spring floods.

The first version seems logical only at first glance. If the Mongols suffered heavy losses, then it was advisable to leave Rus' to replenish the army. But Batu goes to besiege Kozelsk. There he suffers colossal losses and quickly leaves the lands of Rus'. The second version is also difficult to accept, since in the Middle Ages, according to climatologists, northern regions Rus' was even colder than it is now.

Paradox with Kozelsk

An inexplicable and paradoxical situation has developed with Smolensk. As described above, Khan Batu, after the conquest of Torzhok, goes to besiege Kozelsk, which at its core was a simple fortress, a poor and small town. The Horde tried to capture it for seven weeks, suffering thousands of losses. There was absolutely no strategic or commercial benefit from the capture of Kozelsk. Why such sacrifices?

Just a day of riding on horseback and you could find yourself at the walls of Smolensk, one of the richest cities of ancient Rus', but Batu for some reason does not go in this direction. It is strange that all the above logical questions are ignored by historians.

Nomads do not fight in winter

There is another interesting fact that orthodox history simply does not pay attention to because it cannot explain it. Both one and the other Tatar-Mongol invasions Ancient Rus' were committed in winter or late autumn. Let's not forget that Batu Khan's army consisted of nomads, and they, as you know, began their military campaigns only in the spring and tried to finish the battle before the onset of winter.

This is due to the fact that the nomads rode horses, which needed food every day. How was it possible to feed tens of thousands of Mongolian horses in the snowy winter conditions of Rus'? Many historians call this fact insignificant, but it cannot be denied that the success of a long campaign directly depends on the supply of troops.

How many horses did Batu have?

Historians say that the army of nomads ranged from 50 to 400 thousand cavalry. What kind of support should such an army have?

As far as we know When going on a military campaign, each warrior took with him three horses:

• a sled on which the rider constantly moved during the campaign;
• a pack on which weapons, ammunition and warrior’s belongings were transported;
• combat, which went without any load, so that at any time the horse with fresh strength could enter the battle.

It turns out that 300 thousand horsemen equal 900 thousand horses. Plus horses used in transporting rams and other weapons and provisions. That's over one million. How in the snowy winter, during the small ice age Is it possible to feed such a herd?

What was the number of nomads?

There is conflicting information about this. They talk about 15, 30, 200 and 400 thousand people. If we take a small number, then it is difficult to conquer a principality with such a number, the squad of which includes 30 - 50 thousand people. Moreover, the Russians resisted desperately, and many nomads died. If we talk about large numbers, then the question of provision of food arises.

Thus, apparently, things happened differently. The main document used to study the invasion is the Laurentian Chronicle. But it is not without flaws, which was recognized by official history. Three pages of the chronicle describing the beginning of the invasion were changed, which means they are not original.

This article examined conflicting facts, and suggested that you draw your own conclusions.

The history of any nation is characterized by periods of prosperity and oppression. Rus' is no exception. After the Golden Age, under the rule of powerful and intelligent princes, a period began internecine wars for the place of ruler. There was one throne, but there were many contenders.

The powerful state suffered from the enmity of the sons and grandsons of princely blood, their brothers and uncles. During this period, Byty organized the campaigns of his army. The lack of unity and mutual assistance made Batu’s campaigns against Rus' successful. The cities in those days were weak: the fortresses were old, there was a shortage of money, and there was no training of soldiers. Ordinary townspeople and villagers began to defend their homes. They had no military experience and were not familiar with weapons.

Other reasons for the defeat include Batu’s good preparation and organization. Even during the time of Genghis Khan, intelligence officers talked about the wealth of the cities of Rus' and their weakness. The expedition to the Kalka River turned out to be a reconnaissance operation. Strength and strict discipline helped the Mongol-Tatars win. After the capture of China, they acquired latest technologies without existing analogues in the world.

Batu's first campaign to Rus' and its results

The Mongols invaded Rus' twice. Batu's first campaign against Rus' took place in 1237-1238. At the head of the Mongol-Tatar army was the grandson of Genghis Khan, Jochi-Batu (Batu). He had in his power western part lands.

The death of Genghis Khan postponed military campaigns for some time. During this time, the Mongol forces grew significantly. The sons of the khan managed to subjugate Northern China and Volga Bulgaria. The army of the commanders was replenished with Kipchaks.

The first invasion was not a surprise for Rus'. The chronicles describe in detail the stages of movement of the Mongols before their campaign against Rus'. In the cities there was active preparation for the invasion of the horde. The Russian princes did not forget the battle of Kalka, but they hoped to defeat the dangerous enemy easily and quickly. But Batu’s military forces were enormous - up to 75 thousand well-equipped soldiers.

At the end of 1237, the horde crossed the Volga and stood at the borders of the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan people categorically refused Batu’s proposals for conquest and constant payment of tribute. The Ryazan principality asked military assistance from the princes of Rus', but did not receive it. The fighting lasted 5 days. The capital fell and was completely destroyed. The population, including the princely family, was killed. A similar thing happened with the Ryazan lands.

Batu’s first campaign did not end there. The army went to the Vladimir principality. The prince managed to send his squad to Kolomna, but there it was completely defeated. Batu went to a small city at that time - Moscow. She heroically resisted under the leadership of Philip Nyanka. The city stood for 5 days. At the beginning of February, the Mongol army approached Vladimir and besieged it. It was not possible to enter the city through the Golden Gate; they had to make holes in the wall. The chronicles describe terrible pictures of robberies and violence. The Metropolitan, the prince's family and other people hid in the Assumption Cathedral. They were mercilessly set on fire. The death of people was slow and long - from smoke and fire.

The prince himself, with the Vladimir army and the Yuryev, Uglitsky, Yaroslavl and Rostov regiments, moved north to resist the horde. In 1238, all the prince's regiments were destroyed near the Sit River.

The Horde met strong resistance from Torzh and Kozelsk. The cities took more than a week each. Fearing the melting of the snow, the khan turned back. Novgorod survived this campaign of Batu. Some historians believe that Novgorod prince was able to buy his way out of the battle with the Mongol-Tatars. There is a version that Batu and A. Nevsky are the same person. Since Novgorod was the city of Alexander, he did not ruin it.

Whatever happened there, the khan turned back and left Rus'. The retreat was like a raid. The army was divided into detachments and marched in a “net” through small settlements, smashing and taking away everything valuable.

In the Polovtsian lands, the horde was recovering from its losses and gathering strength for a new campaign.

Batu's second campaign against Rus' and its results

The second invasion took place in 1239-1240. In the spring Batu went to southern Rus'. Already in March the horde took possession of Pereyaslavl, and in mid-autumn Chernigov. Batu's second campaign against Rus' is famous for the capture of the capital of Rus' - Kyiv.

Each city fortress used all its forces to fight the enemy. However, the inequality of power was obvious. Many chronicles keep records of the heroic behavior of Russian soldiers. During Batu's invasion, Kyiv was ruled by Daniil Galitsky. During the battles for the city, the prince was absent from it. The army was under the command of Voivode Dmitry. Batu invited Kyiv to peacefully submit and pay tribute, but the townspeople refused. With the help of cumbersome battering devices, the Mongols entered the city and pushed back the inhabitants. The remaining defenders gathered at Detinets and built a new fortification. However, he could not withstand the powerful blow of the Mongols. The last gravestone of the inhabitants of Kyiv was the Tithe Church. The voivode survived this battle, but was seriously wounded. Batu pardoned him for his heroic behavior. This practice has been widespread among the Mongols since ancient times. Dmitry took part in Batu's campaigns against Europe.

Further, the path of the Mongol commander lay to the West. On the way they were captured Galicia-Volyn Principality and parts of Hungary and Poland. The troops reached the Adriatic Sea. Most likely, the campaign would have continued further, but the unexpected death of the Kagan forced the grandson of Genghis Khan to return to his native lands. He wanted to participate in the kurultai, where the selection of a new kagan would take place.

It was no longer possible to reassemble the huge military army. For this reason, the horde did not conquer Europe. Rus' took the entire blow. The military operations had severely battered and exhausted her.

Results of Batu's campaigns against Rus'

Two campaigns of the horde brought multiple losses to the Russian land. However ancient Russian civilization was able to resist, the nation was preserved. Many principalities were destroyed and plundered, people were killed or taken prisoner. Of the 74 cities, 49 were razed to the ground. Half of them did not return to their original appearance or were not rebuilt at all.

In 1242, a new state appeared in the Mongol Empire - Golden Horde with its capital in Sarai-Batu. The Russian princes had to come to Batu and express their submission. It started Tatar-Mongol yoke. The princes visited the horde many times with expensive gifts and large tributes, for which they received confirmation of the principality. The Mongols took advantage of the internecine struggle of the princes and added fuel to the fire. The blood of the ruling elite was shed.

The war led to the loss of valuable craftsmen in various industries. Some knowledge has been lost forever. Stone town planning, glass production and the production of cloisonné products stopped. The unprivileged classes became in power, as many princes and warriors died in battle. Batu’s campaigns led to a decline in the economy, politics, and culture. The stagnation dragged on for many years.

There were also demographic problems. Most of the population where the hostilities took place was killed. The surviving people moved to the safety of the western and northwestern regions. They did not own land and became dependent on the nobility. A reserve of feudal-dependent people was created. The nobility also began to reorient to the land, since existence at the expense of tribute was not possible - it went to the Tatars. Private large land ownership began to grow.

The princes strengthened their power over the people, since their dependence on the veche was minimal. Behind them were the Mongol troops and Batu, who “granted” them power.

However, the veche institutions did not disappear. They were used to gather people and repel the Horde. Numerous large-scale unrest of people forced the Mongols to soften their policy of yoke.

| In the period from the 9th century to the 16th century. Invasions of Genghis Khan and Batu (1223, 1237-1241)

Invasions of Genghis Khan and Batu
(1223, 1237-1241)

When the Russian-Polovtsian struggle was already on the decline, in the steppes of Central Asia, in the territory of present-day Mongolia, an event occurred that had a serious impact on the course of world history, including the fate of Russia: the Mongol tribes that roamed here united under the rule of the commander Genghis Khan. Having created from them the best army in Eurasia at that time, he moved it to conquer foreign lands. Under his leadership, the Mongols in 1207-1222 conquered Northern China, Central and Central Asia, and Transcaucasia, which became part of the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan. In 1223, advanced detachments of his troops appeared in the Black Sea steppes.

Battle of Kalka (1223).

In the spring of 1223, a 30,000-strong detachment from the troops of Genghis Khan, led by commanders Jebe and Subede, invaded the Northern Black Sea region and defeated the troops of the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan. Then Kotyan turned to his father-in-law, the Russian prince Mstislav the Udal, for help with the words: “Now they have taken our land, tomorrow they will take yours.” Mstislav Udaloy gathered a council of princes in Kyiv and convinced them of the need to fight the new nomads. He reasonably assumed that having subjugated the Polovtsians, the Mongols would add them to their army, and then Rus' would face a much more formidable invasion than before. Mstislav suggested not to wait for such a turn of events, but to unite with the Polovtsy before it was too late, go to the steppe and defeat the aggressors on their territory. The assembled army was led by the senior prince Mstislav of Kyiv. The Russians set out on a campaign in April 1223.

Having crossed to the left bank of the Dnieper, they defeated the Mongol vanguard in the Oleshya region, which began to quickly retreat deep into the steppes. The persecution lasted eight days. Having reached the Kalka River (Northern Azov region), the Russians saw large Mongolian forces on the other bank and began to prepare for battle. However, the princes were never able to develop a unified plan of action. Mstislav Kyiv adhered to defensive tactics. He suggested that we fortify ourselves and wait for an attack. Mstislav the Udaloy, on the contrary, wanted to attack the Mongols first. Having failed to achieve agreement, the princes separated. Mstislav of Kyiv set up camp on a hill on the right bank. The Polovtsy, under the command of commander Yarun, as well as Russian regiments led by Mstislav the Udal and Daniil Galitsky, crossed the river and entered into battle with the Mongols on May 31. The Polovtsians were the first to falter. They rushed to run and crushed the ranks of the Russians. Those, having lost their battle formation, also could not resist and fled back towards the Dnieper. Mstislav Udaloy and Daniil Galiky with the remnants of their squads managed to reach the Dnieper. Having crossed, Mstislav ordered the destruction of all ships in order to prevent the Mongols from crossing to the right bank of the river. But in doing so, he put other Russian units fleeing pursuit into a difficult situation.
While one part of the Mongol army pursued the remnants of the defeated regiments of Mstislav the Udal, the other surrounded Mstislav of Kyiv, sitting in a fortified camp. The surrounded people fought back for three days. Having failed to take the camp by storm, the attackers offered Mstislav Kievsky a free pass home. He agreed. But when he left the camp, the Mongols destroyed his entire army. According to legend, the Mongols strangled Mstislav of Kyiv and two other princes captured in the camp under the boards on which they held a feast in honor of their victory. According to the chronicler, never before had the Russians suffered such a brutal defeat. Nine princes died at Kalka. And in total, only every tenth warrior returned home. After the Battle of Kalka, the Mongol army raided the Dnieper, but did not dare to move further without careful preparation and turned back to join the main forces of Genghis Khan. Kalka is the first battle between the Russians and the Mongols. Her lesson, unfortunately, was not learned by the princes to prepare a worthy rebuff to the new formidable aggressor.

Invasion of Khan Batu (1237-1238)

The Battle of Kalka turned out to be only reconnaissance in the geopolitical strategy of the leaders of the Mongol Empire. They did not intend to limit their conquests only to Asia, but sought to subjugate the entire Eurasian continent. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu, who led the Tatar-Mongol army, tried to implement these plans. The main corridor for the movement of nomads to Europe was the Black Sea steppes. However, Batu did not immediately use this traditional path. Knowing very well about the situation in Europe through excellent reconnaissance, the Mongol Khan decided to first secure the rear for his campaign. After all, having retreated deep into Europe, the Mongol army left in its rear the Old Russian state, whose armed forces could cut the Black Sea corridor with a blow from the north, which threatened Batu with an inevitable catastrophe. The Mongol Khan directed his first blow against North-Eastern Rus'.

By the time of the invasion of Rus', the Mongols had one of the best armies in the world, which had accumulated a wealth of thirty years of combat experience. It had an effective military doctrine, a significant number of skilled and resilient warriors, strong discipline and coordination, skillful leadership, as well as excellent, varied weapons (siege engines, fire shells filled with gunpowder, easel crossbows). If the Cumans usually gave in to fortresses, the Mongols, on the contrary, were excellent in siege and assault art, as well as various equipment to take cities. The Mongol army had special engineering units for this purpose, using the rich technical experience of China.

The moral factor played a huge role in the Mongol army. Unlike most other nomads, Batu’s warriors were inspired by the grandiose idea of ​​conquering the world and firmly believed in their high destiny. This attitude allowed them to act aggressively, energetically and fearlessly, with a sense of superiority over the enemy. A major role in the campaigns of the Mongolian army was played by reconnaissance, which actively collected data about the enemy in advance and studied the expected theater of military operations. Such a strong and numerous army (up to 150 thousand people), carried away by a single idea and armed with advanced technology for those times, approached the eastern borders of Rus', which at that time was in the stage of fragmentation and decline. The clash of political and military weakness with a streamlined, strong-willed and energetic military force gave disastrous results.

Capture of Ryazan (1237).

Batu planned his campaign against North-Eastern Rus' in winter, when numerous rivers and swamps froze. This made it possible to ensure the mobility and maneuverability of the Mongol cavalry army. On the other hand, this also achieved surprise in the attack, since the princes, accustomed to summer-autumn attacks by nomads, were not prepared for a major invasion in winter.

In the late autumn of 1237, the army of Khan Batu numbering up to 150 thousand people invaded the Ryazan principality. Khan's ambassadors came to the Ryazan prince Yuri Igorevich and began to demand tribute from him in the amount of a tenth of his property (tithe). “When none of us are left alive, then take everything,” the prince proudly answered them. Preparing to repel the invasion, the people of Ryazan turned to the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich for help. But he didn't help them. Meanwhile, Batu’s troops defeated the Ryazan vanguard detachment sent forward and on December 16, 1237, besieged their capital, the city of Ryazan. The townspeople repelled the first attacks. Then the besiegers used battering machines and with their help destroyed the fortifications. Having burst into the city after a 9-day siege, Batu’s soldiers carried out a massacre there. Prince Yuri and almost all the inhabitants of Ryazan died.

With the fall of Ryazan, the resistance of the Ryazan people did not stop. One of the Ryazan boyars, Evpatiy Kolovrat, assembled a detachment of 1,700 people. Having overtaken Batu's army, he attacked it and crushed the rear regiments. They thought in amazement that it was the dead warriors of the land of Ryazan who had been resurrected. Batu sent the hero Khostovrul against Kolovrat, but he fell in a duel with the Russian knight. However, the forces were still unequal. Batu’s huge army surrounded a handful of heroes, who almost all died in the battle (including Kolovrat himself). After the battle, Batu ordered the surviving Russian soldiers to be released as a sign of respect for their courage.

Battle of Kolomna (1238).

After the capture of Ryazan, Batu began to carry out main goal of his campaign - the defeat of the armed forces of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. The first blow was struck on the city of Kolomna, an important strategic center, by taking which the Tatar-Mongols cut the direct connection between the northeastern and southwestern regions of Rus'. In January 1238, Batu’s army approached Kolomna, where the advance detachment of the troops of the Grand Duke of Vladimir was located under the command of his son Vsevolod Yuryevich, who was joined by Prince Roman, who had fled from the Ryazan land. The forces turned out to be unequal, and the Russians suffered a severe defeat. Prince Roman and most of the Russian soldiers died. Vsevolod Yurievich with the remnants of the squad fled to Vladimir. Batu's army followed him, which along the way captured and burned Moscow, where another son of the Grand Duke of Vladimir, Vladimir Yuryevich, was captured.

Capture of Vladimir (1238).

On February 3, 1238, Batu’s army approached the capital of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality - the city of Vladimir. Batu sent part of his forces to Torzhok to cut off the connection between the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and Novgorod. Thus, North-Eastern Rus' was cut off from help from both the north and the south. Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich was absent from his capital. She was defended by a squad under the command of his sons - princes Mstislav and Vsevolod. At first, they wanted to go into the field and fight Batu’s army, but they were restrained from such a reckless impulse by the experienced governor Pyotr Oslyadyukovich. Meanwhile, having built forests opposite the city walls and brought battering guns to them, Batu’s army stormed Vladimir from three sides on February 7, 1238. With the help of battering machines, Batu’s soldiers broke through the fortress walls and broke into Vladimir. Then its defenders retreated to the Old City. Prince Vsevolod Yuryevich, who had by that time lost the remnants of his former arrogance, tried to stop the bloodshed. With a small detachment, he went to Batu, hoping to appease the khan with gifts. But he ordered to kill the young prince and continue the assault. After the capture of Vladimir, eminent townspeople and part of the common people were burned in the Church of the Mother of God, which had previously been plundered by the invaders. The city was brutally destroyed.

Battle of the City River (1238).

Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, meanwhile, was gathering regiments in the north, hoping for help from other principalities. But it was already too late. Having cut off Yuri's army from the north and south, Batu's troops were rapidly approaching its location on the City River (a tributary of the Mologa River), in the area of ​​​​the junction of the roads to Novgorod and Belozersk. On March 4, 1238, a detachment under the command of Temnik Burundai was the first to reach the City and decisively attacked the regiments of Yuri Vsevolodovich. The Russians fought stubbornly and valiantly. Neither side could gain the upper hand for a long time. The outcome of the battle was decided by the approach of fresh forces to the Burundai army led by Batu Khan. The Russian warriors could not withstand the new blow and suffered a crushing defeat. Most of them, including Grand Duke Yuri, died in a brutal battle. The defeat at City put an end to organized resistance in North-Eastern Rus'.

Having dealt with the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Batu gathered all his forces at Torzhok and on March 17 set out on a campaign against Novgorod. However, at the Ignach Krest tract, before reaching about 200 km to Novgorod, the Tatar-Mongol army turned back. Many historians see the reason for such a retreat in the fact that Batu was afraid of the onset of the spring thaw. Of course, the heavily swampy terrain crossed by small rivers, along which the route of the Tatar-Mongol army ran, could have done him a disservice. Another reason seems no less important. Probably, Batu was well aware of the strong fortifications of Novgorod and the readiness of the Novgorodians for a strong defense. Having suffered considerable losses during the winter campaign, the Tatar-Mongols were already far away from their rear. Any military failure in the conditions of the flood of Novgorod rivers and swamps could turn into a disaster for Batu’s army. Apparently, all these considerations influenced the khan’s decision to begin a retreat.

Defense of Kozelsk (1238).

The fact that the Russians were far from broken and were ready to defend themselves courageously was evidenced by the heroism of the residents of Kozelsk. Its glorious defense was perhaps the most striking event in the tragic campaign of 1237/38 for the Russians. On the way back, the troops of Khan Batu besieged the city of Kozelsk, which was ruled by the young Prince Vasily. To the demand to surrender, the townspeople replied: “Our prince is a baby, but we, as faithful Russians, must die for him in order to leave a good reputation for ourselves in the world, and accept the crown of immortality after the grave.”

For seven weeks, the courageous defenders of small Kozelsk steadfastly repelled the onslaught of a huge army. In the end, the attackers managed to break through the walls and break into the city. But even here the invaders met with brutal resistance. The townspeople fought the attackers with knives. One of the detachments of Kozelsk defenders broke out of the city and attacked Batu’s regiments in the field. In this battle, the Russians destroyed the battering machines and killed 4 thousand people. However, despite desperate resistance, the city was taken. None of the residents surrendered; everyone died fighting. What happened to Prince Vasily is unknown. According to one version, he drowned in blood. Since then, the chronicler notes, Batu gave Kozelsk a new name: “Evil City.”

Invasion of Batu (1240-1241)

North-Eastern Rus' lay in ruins. It seemed that nothing prevented Batu from starting his campaign in Western Europe. But despite significant military successes, the winter-spring campaign of 1237/38, apparently, was not easy for the khan’s troops. Over the next two years, they did not conduct large-scale operations and recuperated in the steppes, reorganizing the army and collecting supplies. At the same time, with the help of reconnaissance raids of individual detachments, the Tatar-Mongols strengthened their control over the lands from the banks of the Klyazma to the Dnieper - they captured Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Gorokhovets. On the other hand, Mongolian intelligence was actively collecting data on the situation in Central and Western Europe. Finally, at the end of November 1240, Batu, at the head of hordes of 150 thousand, undertook his famous campaign to Western Europe, dreaming of reaching the edge of the universe and soaking the hooves of his horses in the waters of the Atlantic Ocean.

Capture of Kyiv by Batu's troops (1240).

The princes of Southern Rus' showed enviable carelessness in this situation. Being next to a formidable enemy for two years, they not only did nothing to organize a joint defense, but also continued to quarrel with each other. Without waiting for the invasion, Kyiv prince Mikhail fled the city in advance. The Smolensk prince Rostislav took advantage of this and captured Kyiv. But he was soon driven out of there by Prince Daniil of Galitsky, who also left the city, leaving the thousand-year-old Dmitry in his place. When, in December 1240, Batu’s army, having crossed the ice of the Dnieper, approached Kyiv, ordinary Kievans had to pay for the insignificance of their leaders.

The defense of the city was headed by Dmitry Tysyatsky. But how could civilians really resist the huge hordes? According to the chronicler, when Batu’s troops surrounded the city, the people of Kiev could not hear each other because of the creaking of carts, the roar of camels, and the neighing of horses. The fate of Kyiv was decided. Having destroyed the fortifications with battering machines, the attackers broke into the city. But its defenders continued to stubbornly defend themselves and, under the leadership of their thousand commander, managed to erect new wooden fortifications near the Tithe Church overnight. The next morning, December 6, 1240, a fierce battle began here again, in which the last defenders of Kyiv died. The wounded governor Dmitry was captured. For his courage, Batu gave him life. Batya's army completely destroyed Kyiv. Five years later, the Franciscan monk Plano Carpini, who visited Kyiv, counted no more than 200 houses in this formerly majestic city, the inhabitants of which were in terrible slavery.
The capture of Kyiv opened the way for Batu to Western Europe. Without encountering serious resistance, his troops marched through the territory of Galician-Volyn Rus. Leaving an army of 30,000 on the occupied lands, Batu crossed the Carpathians in the spring of 1241 and invaded Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic. Having achieved a number of successes there, Batu reached the shores of the Adriatic Sea. Here he received news of the death of the ruler of the Mongol Empire, Ogedei, in Karakorum. According to the laws of Genghis Khan, Batu had to return to Mongolia to elect a new head of the empire. But most likely, this was only a reason to stop the campaign, since the offensive impulse of the army, thinned by the battles and cut off from its rear, was already drying up.

Batu failed to create an empire from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, but he still founded a huge nomadic state - the Horde, centered in the city of Saray (in the lower Volga). This Horde became part of the Mongol Empire. Fearing new invasions, the Russian princes recognized vassal dependence on the Horde.

The invasions of 1237-1238 and 1240-1241 became the largest disaster in the entire history of Rus'. Not only the armed forces of the principalities were destroyed, but to a much greater extent the material culture of the Old Russian state. Archaeologists have calculated that out of 74 ancient Russian cities of the pre-Mongol period they studied, 49 (or two-thirds) were devastated by Batu. Moreover, 14 of them never rose from the ruins, another 15 were unable to restore their former significance, turning into villages.

The negative consequences of these campaigns were protracted, since, unlike the previous nomads (Polovtsians, Pechenegs), the new invaders were no longer interested only in booty, but also in the subjugation of the conquered lands. Batu's campaigns led to the defeat of the East Slavic world and the further separation of its parts. Dependence on the Golden Horde had the greatest impact on the development of the northeastern lands (Great Russia). Here Tatar orders, morals and customs took root most strongly. IN Novgorod lands The power of the khans was felt less, and the southern and southwestern parts of Rus' a century later left the subordination of the Horde, becoming part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Thus, in the 14th century, the ancient Russian lands were divided into two spheres of influence - the Golden Horde (eastern) and Lithuanian (western). New branches were formed in the territory conquered by the Lithuanians Eastern Slavs: Belarusians and Ukrainians.

The defeat of Rus' after the invasion of Batu and the foreign rule that followed deprived the East Slavic world of independence and a favorable historical perspective. It took centuries of incredible efforts and persistent, sometimes tragic struggle of the “all-enduring Russian tribe” for it to be able to destroy foreign power, create a powerful power and become one of the great nations.

Based on materials from the portal "Great Wars in Russian History"

In the December days of 1237, there were bitter frosts in the territory between the Volga and Oka. In fact, the cold more than once came to the aid of the Russian armies, becoming a faithful ally in the most dramatic periods of history. He drove Napoleon away from Moscow, shackled the Nazis hand and foot in frozen trenches. But he could not do anything against the Tatar-Mongols.

Strictly speaking, the term “Tatar-Mongols”, which has long been established in the Russian tradition, is only half correct. In terms of the ethnic formation of the armies that came from the East and the political core of the Golden Horde, the Turkic-speaking peoples did not occupy important positions at that moment.

Genghis Khan conquered the Tatar tribes settled in the vast expanses of Siberia at the beginning of the 13th century - just a few decades before the campaign of his descendants against Rus'.

Naturally, the Tatar khans supplied their recruits to the Horde not of their own free will, but under duress. There were much more signs of a relationship between a suzerain and a vassal than equal cooperation. The role and influence of the Turkic part of the Horde population increased much later. Well, in the 1230s, calling foreign invaders Tatar-Mongols was the same as calling the Nazis who reached Stalingrad German-Hungarian-Croats.

Wikimedia

Russia has traditionally been successful against threats from the West, but has often capitulated to the East. Suffice it to remember that just a few years after Batu’s invasion, Rus' defeated the well-equipped Scandinavian and German knights on the Neva and then on Lake Peipsi.

The rapid whirlwind that swept through the lands of the Russian principalities in 1237-1238 and lasted until 1240 divided national history to "before" and "after". It is not for nothing that the term “pre-Mongol period” is used in chronology. Finding itself under foreign yoke for 250 years, Rus' lost tens of thousands of its own killed and driven into slavery. the best people, forgot many technologies and crafts, forgot how to build structures from stone, and stopped in socio-political development.

Many historians are convinced: it was at that time that the lag behind Western Europe, the consequences of which have not been overcome to this day.

Only a few dozen architectural monuments of the pre-Mongol era have survived to us. The St. Sophia Cathedral and the Golden Gate in Kyiv, the unique churches of the Vladimir-Suzdal land, are well known. Nothing has been preserved on the territory of the Ryazan region.

The Horde dealt especially cruelly with those who had the courage to resist. Neither the elderly nor children were spared - entire villages of Russians were slaughtered. During Batu’s invasion, even before the siege of Ryazan, many important centers of the ancient Russian state were put to fire, forever wiped off the face of the earth: Dedoslavl, Belgorod Ryazan, Ryazan Voronezh - today it is no longer possible to accurately determine their location.

Wikimedia

Actually, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Ryazan - we call it Old Ryazan - was located 60 kilometers from the modern city (then the small settlement of Pereslavl-Ryazan). The tragedy of “Russian Troy,” as poetic historians called it, is largely symbolic.

As in the war on the shores of the Aegean Sea, glorified by Homer, there was a place for heroic defense, cunning plans of the attackers, and even, perhaps, betrayal.

The Ryazan people also had their own Hector - the heroic hero Evpatiy Kolovrat. According to legend, during the days of the siege of Ryazan he was with the embassy in Chernigov, where he unsuccessfully tried to negotiate help for the suffering region. Returning home, Kolovrat found only ruins and ashes: “... the rulers were killed and many people were killed: some were killed and flogged, others were burned, and others were drowned.” He soon recovered from the shock and decided to take revenge.

Wikimedia

Having overtaken the Horde already in the Suzdal region, Evpatiy and his small squad destroyed their rearguard, defeated the khan’s relative, Batyr Khostovrul, but in mid-January he himself died.

If you believe the “Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu,” the Mongols, shocked by the courage of the fallen Russian, gave his body to the surviving soldiers. The ancient Greeks were less merciful: the old king Priam had to ransom the corpse of his son Hector for gold.

Nowadays, the story of Kolovrat has been pulled out of oblivion and filmed by Janik Fayziev. Artistic value of the painting and historical correspondence real events critics have yet to weigh in.

But let's go back to December 1237. Having ravaged the cities and villages of the Ryazan region, on whose lands the first, most powerful and crushing blow of the entire campaign fell, Batu Khan for a long time did not dare to begin the assault on the capital.

Based on the experience of his predecessors, well imagining the events of the Battle of Kalka, the grandson of Genghis Khan obviously understood: it was possible to capture and, most importantly, keep Rus' in subjection only by centralizing all Mongol forces.

To a certain extent, Batu, like Alexander I and Kutuzov, was lucky with his military leader. Subedei, a talented commander and comrade-in-arms of his grandfather, made a huge contribution to the ensuing defeat with a series of right decisions.

The fighting that also served as a prologue to the siege, primarily on the Voronezh River, clearly showed all the weaknesses of the Russians, which the Mongols skillfully took advantage of. There was no unified command. Princes from other lands, mindful of many years of strife, refused to come to the rescue. At first, local but deep-seated grievances were stronger than the fear of a general threat.

If the knights of the princely equestrian squads were in no way inferior in fighting qualities to the elite warriors of the Horde army - noyons and nukers, then the basis of the Russian army, the militia, was poorly trained and could not compete in military skills with an experienced enemy.

Fortification systems were erected in cities to protect against neighboring principalities, which had a similar military arsenal, and not at all against steppe nomads.

According to historian Alexander Orlov, in the current conditions the Ryazan residents had no choice but to concentrate on defense. Their capabilities objectively did not suggest any other tactics.

Rus' of the 13th century was full of impenetrable forests. This is largely why Ryazan waited for its fate until mid-December. Batu was aware of internal strife in the enemy camp and the reluctance of the Chernigov and Vladimir princes to come to the rescue of the Ryazan people. When the frost tightly sealed the rivers with ice, heavily armed Mongol warriors walked along the riverbeds as if along a highway.

To begin with, the Mongols demanded submission and a tenth of the accumulated property. “If we are all gone, everything will be yours,” came the answer.

Wikimedia

The people of Ryazan, led by Grand Duke Yuri Igorevich, defended themselves desperately. They threw stones and poured arrows, tar and boiling water on the enemy from the fortress walls. The Mongols had to call for reinforcements and offensive machines - catapults, rams, siege towers.

The struggle lasted five days - on the sixth, gaps appeared in the fortifications, the Horde broke into the city and committed lynching over the defenders. The head of defense, his family, and almost all ordinary Ryazan residents accepted death.

In January, Kolomna fell, the most important outpost on the border of the Ryazan region and the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the key to North-Eastern Rus'.

Then it was Moscow’s turn: Voivode Philip Nyanka defended the oak Kremlin for five days until he shared the fate of his neighbors. As the Laurentian Chronicle tells, all the churches were burned and the inhabitants were killed.

Batu's victorious march continued. Many decades remained before the first serious successes of the Russians in the confrontation with the Mongols.