Justinian first. Justinian the Great. Appearance and lifetime images
Emperor Justinian. Mosaic in Ravenna. VI century
The future emperor of Byzantium was born around 482 in the small Macedonian village of Taurisium into the family of a poor peasant. He came to Constantinople as a teenager at the invitation of his uncle Justin, an influential courtier. Justin did not have his own children, and he patronized his nephew: he called him to the capital and, despite the fact that he himself remained illiterate, gave him a good education, and then found a position at court. In 518 The senate, guard and residents of Constantinople proclaimed the elderly Justin emperor, and he soon made his nephew his co-ruler. Justinian was distinguished by a clear mind, a broad political outlook, determination, perseverance and exceptional efficiency. These qualities made him the de facto ruler of the empire. His young, beautiful wife Theodora also played a huge role. Her life took an unusual turn: the daughter of a poor circus performer and a circus performer herself, she, as a 20-year-old girl, went to Alexandria, where she came under the influence of mystics and monks and was transformed, becoming sincerely religious and pious. Beautiful and charming, Theodora had an iron will and turned out to be an indispensable friend to the emperor in difficult times. Justinian and Theodora were a worthy couple, although evil tongues were haunted by their union for a long time.
In 527, after the death of his uncle, 45-year-old Justinian became autocrat - autocrat - of the Roman Empire, as the Byzantine Empire was then called.
He gained power at a difficult time: only the eastern part of the former Roman possessions remained, and barbarian kingdoms were formed on the territory of the Western Roman Empire: the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Franks in Gaul and the Vandals in Africa. The Christian Church was torn by disputes about whether Christ was a “God-man”; dependent peasants (colons) fled and did not cultivate the land, the arbitrariness of the nobility ruined the common people, the cities were shaken by riots, the finances of the empire were in decline. The situation could only be saved by decisive and selfless measures, and Justinian, alien to luxury and pleasure, a sincerely believing Orthodox Christian, theologian and politician, was perfectly suited for this role.
Several stages clearly stand out in the reign of Justinian I. The beginning of the reign (527-532) was a period of widespread charity, distribution of funds to the poor, tax reduction, and assistance to cities affected by the earthquake. At this time, the position of the Christian Church in the fight against other religions strengthened: the last stronghold of paganism, the Platonic Academy, was closed in Athens; limited opportunities for openly practicing the cults of other believers - Jews, Samaritans, etc. This was a period of wars with the neighboring Iranian Sassanid power for influence in South Arabia, the goal of which was to gain a foothold in the ports of the Indian Ocean and thereby undermine Iran's monopoly on the silk trade with China. It was a time of struggle against the tyranny and abuses of the nobility.
The main event of this stage is legal reform. In 528, Justinian established a commission of experienced jurists and statesmen. The main role in it was played by the legal specialist Trebonian. The commission prepared a collection of imperial decrees - the Justinian Code, a set of works by Roman jurists - the Digests, as well as a guide to the study of law - the Institutions. Carrying out legislative reform, we proceeded from the need to combine the norms of classical Roman law with the spiritual values of Christianity. This was expressed primarily in the creation of a unified system of imperial citizenship and the proclamation of the equality of citizens before the law. Moreover, under Justinian, the laws related to private property inherited from Ancient Rome took their final form. In addition, Justinian's laws no longer considered the slave as a thing - a “speaking instrument”, but as a person. Although slavery was not abolished, many opportunities opened up for a slave to free himself: if he became a bishop, entered a monastery, became a soldier; It was forbidden to kill a slave, and the murder of someone else's slave entailed cruel execution. In addition, according to the new laws, the rights of women in the family were equal to the rights of men. Justinian's laws prohibited divorce, which was condemned by the Church. At the same time, the era could not help but leave its mark on the law. Executions were frequent: for commoners - crucifixion, burning, devouring to wild animals, beating with rods to death, quartering; nobles were beheaded. Insulting the emperor, even damaging his sculptural images, was punishable by death.
The emperor's reforms were interrupted by the Nika popular uprising in Constantinople (532). It all started with a conflict between two parties of fans in the circus: the Veneti (“blue”) and the Prasin (“green”). These were not only sports, but partly also socio-political unions. Political grievances were added to the traditional struggle of fans: the Prasins believed that the government was oppressing them and patronizing the Veneti. In addition, the lower classes were dissatisfied with the abuses of Justinian's "Minister of Finance" - John of Cappadocia, while the nobility hoped to get rid of the upstart emperor. The Prasin leaders presented their demands to the emperor, and in a very harsh form, and when he rejected them, they called him a murderer and left the circus. Thus, an unheard-of insult was inflicted on the autocrat. The situation was complicated by the fact that when, on the same day, the instigators of the clash from both parties were arrested and sentenced to death, two of the convicts fell from the gallows (“were pardoned by God”), but the authorities refused to release them.
Then a single “green-blue” party was created with the slogan “Nika!” (circus cry “Win!”). An open riot began in the city, and arson was committed. The emperor agreed to concessions, dismissing the ministers most hated by the people, but this did not bring peace. An important role was also played by the fact that the nobility distributed gifts and weapons to the rebellious plebs, inciting rebellion. Neither attempts to suppress the uprising by force with the help of a detachment of barbarians, nor the public repentance of the emperor with the Gospel in his hands yielded anything. The rebels now demanded his abdication and proclaimed the noble senator Hypatius emperor. Meanwhile, the fires became more and more numerous. “The city was a pile of blackening ruins,” wrote a contemporary. Justinian was ready to abdicate, but at that moment Empress Theodora declared that she preferred death to flight and that “the emperor’s purple is an excellent shroud.” Her determination played a big role, and Justinian decided to fight. Troops loyal to the government made a desperate attempt to regain control over the capital: a detachment of the commander Belisarius, the conqueror of the Persians, entered the circus, where a stormy meeting of the rebels was taking place, and carried out a brutal massacre there. They said that 35 thousand people died, but Justinian’s throne survived.
The terrible catastrophe that befell Constantinople - fires and deaths - did not, however, plunge either Justinian or the townspeople into despondency. In the same year, rapid construction began using treasury funds. The pathos of restoration captured wide sections of the townspeople. In a sense, we can say that the city rose from the ashes, like the fabulous Phoenix bird, and became even more beautiful. The symbol of this rise was, of course, the construction of a miracle of miracles - the Constantinople Church of Hagia Sophia. It began immediately, in 532, under the leadership of architects from the province - Anthemia of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus. Externally, the building had little to amaze the viewer, but the real miracle of transformation took place inside, when the believer found himself under a huge mosaic dome, which seemed to hang in the air without any support. A dome with a cross hovered above the worshipers, symbolizing the divine cover over the empire and its capital. Justinian had no doubt that his power had divine sanction. On holidays, he sat on the left side of the throne, and the right side was empty - Christ was invisibly present on it. The autocrat dreamed that an invisible cover would be raised over the entire Roman Mediterranean. With the idea of restoring the Christian empire - the "Roman house" - Justinian inspired the entire society.
When the dome of Constantinople Sophia was still being erected, the second stage of Justinian’s reign (532-540) began with the Great Liberation Campaign to the West.
By the end of the first third of the 6th century. The barbarian kingdoms that arose in the western part of the Roman Empire were experiencing a deep crisis. They were torn apart by religious strife: the main population professed Orthodoxy, but the barbarians, Goths and Vandals were Arians, whose teaching was declared a heresy, condemned in the 4th century. at the I and II Ecumenical Councils of the Christian Church. Within the barbarian tribes themselves, social stratification was occurring at a rapid pace, discord between the nobility and the common people was intensifying, which undermined the combat effectiveness of the armies. The elite of the kingdoms were busy with intrigues and conspiracies and did not care about the interests of their states. The indigenous population waited for the Byzantines as liberators. The reason for the outbreak of war in Africa was that the Vandal nobility overthrew the legitimate king - a friend of the empire - and placed his relative Gelizmer on the throne. In 533, Justinian sent a 16,000-strong army under the command of Belisarius to the African shores. The Byzantines managed to secretly land and freely occupy the capital of the Vandal kingdom of Carthage. The Orthodox clergy and Roman nobility solemnly greeted the imperial troops. The common people also reacted sympathetically to their appearance, since Belisarius severely punished robberies and looting. King Gelizmer tried to organize resistance, but lost the decisive battle. The Byzantines were helped by an accident: at the beginning of the battle, the king’s brother died, and Gelizmer left the troops to bury him. The Vandals decided that the king had fled, and panic gripped the army. All of Africa fell into the hands of Belisarius. Under Justinian I, grandiose construction began here - 150 new cities were built, close trade contacts with the Eastern Mediterranean were restored. The province experienced economic growth throughout the 100 years it was part of the empire.
Following the annexation of Africa, a war began for the possession of the historical core of the western part of the empire - Italy. The reason for the outbreak of the war was the overthrow and murder of the legitimate queen of the Ostrogoths, Amalasunta, by her husband Theodatus. In the summer of 535, Belisarius with a detachment of eight thousand landed on Sicily and in a short time, experiencing almost no resistance, occupied the island. The next year, his army crossed to the Apennine Peninsula and, despite the enemy’s huge numerical superiority, recaptured its southern and central parts. The Italians greeted Belisarius everywhere with flowers; only Naples offered resistance. The Christian Church played a huge role in such support of the people. In addition, chaos reigned in the Ostrogoth camp: the murder of the cowardly and treacherous Theodat, a riot in the troops. The army chose Viti-gis, a brave soldier but a weak politician, as the new king. He, too, was unable to stop the advance of Belisarius, and in December 536 the Byzantine army occupied Rome without a fight. The clergy and townspeople arranged a solemn meeting for the Byzantine soldiers. The population of Italy no longer wanted the power of the Ostrogoths, as evidenced by the following fact. When in the spring of 537 Belisarius's five-thousandth detachment was besieged in Rome by the huge army of Witigis, the battle for Rome lasted 14 months; Despite hunger and disease, the Romans remained loyal to the empire and did not allow Witigis into the city. It is also significant that the king of the Ostrogoths himself printed coins with the portrait of Justinian I - only the power of the emperor was considered legal. In the deep autumn of 539, the army of Belisarius besieged the barbarian capital of Ravenna, and a few months later, relying on the support of friends, the imperial troops occupied it without a fight.
It seemed that Justinian's power knew no bounds, he was at the apogee of his power, plans for the restoration of the Roman Empire were coming true. However, the main tests were still awaiting his power. The thirteenth year of the reign of Justinian I was a “black year” and began a period of difficulties that only the faith, courage and steadfastness of the Romans and their emperor could overcome. This was the third stage of his reign (540-558).
Even when Belisarius was negotiating the capitulation of Ravenna, the Persians violated the “Eternal Peace” they had signed ten years ago with the empire. Shah Khosrow I invaded Syria with a huge army and besieged the capital of the province - the richest city of Antioch. The residents bravely defended themselves, but the garrison was unable to fight and fled. The Persians took Antioch, plundered the flourishing city and sold the inhabitants into slavery. The next year, the troops of Khosrow I invaded Lazika (Western Georgia), allied with the empire, and a protracted Byzantine-Persian war began. The thunderstorm from the East coincided with the Slavic invasion of the Danube. Taking advantage of the fact that the border fortifications were left almost without garrisons (there were troops in Italy and in the East), the Slavs reached the capital itself, broke through the Long Walls (three walls stretching from the Black Sea to Marmara, protecting the outskirts of the city) and began to plunder the suburbs of Constantinople. Belisarius was urgently transferred to the East, and he managed to stop the Persian invasion, but while his army was not in Italy, the Ostrogoths revived there. They chose the young, handsome, brave and intelligent Totila as king and, under his leadership, began a new war. The barbarians enlisted fugitive slaves and colonists into the army, distributed lands of the Church and the nobility to their supporters, and recruited those who had been offended by the Byzantines. Very quickly, Totila's small army occupied almost all of Italy; Only the ports remained under the control of the empire, which could not be taken without a fleet.
But, probably, the most difficult test for the power of Justinian I was the terrible plague epidemic (541-543), which killed almost half the population. It seemed that the invisible dome of Sophia over the empire had cracked and black whirlwinds of death and destruction poured into it.
Justinian understood well that his main strength in the face of a superior enemy was the faith and unity of his subjects. Therefore, simultaneously with the ongoing war with the Persians in Lazica, the difficult struggle with Totila, who created his fleet and captured Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, the emperor’s attention was increasingly occupied by issues of theology. It seemed to some that the elderly Justinian had lost his mind, spending days and nights in such a critical situation reading the Holy Scriptures, studying the works of the Church Fathers (the traditional name for the figures of the Christian Church who created its dogma and organization) and writing his own theological treatises. However, the emperor understood well that it was in the Christian faith of the Romans that their strength lay. Then the famous idea of the “symphony of the Kingdom and Priesthood” was formulated - the union of church and state as a guarantee of peace - the Empire.
In 543, Justinian wrote a treatise condemning the teachings of the mystic, ascetic and theologian of the 3rd century. Origen, denying the eternal torment of sinners. However, the emperor paid the main attention to overcoming the schism between the Orthodox and Monophysites. This conflict has tormented the Church for more than 100 years. In 451, the IV Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysites. The theological dispute was complicated by the rivalry between the influential centers of Orthodoxy in the East - Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople. The split between supporters of the Council of Chalcedon and its opponents (Orthodox and Monophysites) during the reign of Justinian I became especially acute, since the Monophysites created their own separate church hierarchy. In 541, the activities of the famous Monophysite Jacob Baradei began, who, dressed as a beggar, went around all the countries inhabited by Monophysites and restored the Monophysite church in the East. The religious conflict was complicated by a national one: the Greeks and Romans, who considered themselves the ruling people in the Roman Empire, were predominantly Orthodox, and the Copts and many Arabs were Monophysites. For the empire, this was all the more dangerous because the richest provinces - Egypt and Syria - contributed huge sums to the treasury and much depended on the support of the government by the trade and craft circles of these regions. While Theodora was alive, she helped mitigate the conflict by patronizing the Monophysites, despite the complaints of the Orthodox clergy, but in 548 the empress died. Justinian decided to bring the issue of reconciliation with the Monophysites to the V Ecumenical Council. The emperor's plan was to smooth out the conflict by condemning the teachings of the enemies of the Monophysites - Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Willow of Edessa and Feodor of Mopsuet (the so-called "three chapters"). The difficulty was that they all died in peace with the Church. Is it possible to judge the dead? After much hesitation, Justinian decided that it was possible, but Pope Vigilius and the overwhelming majority of Western bishops did not agree with his decision. The Emperor took the Pope to Constantinople, kept him almost under house arrest, trying to achieve agreement under pressure. After a long struggle and hesitation, Vigilius surrendered. In 553, the V Ecumenical Council in Constantinople condemned the “three heads.” The pope did not participate in the work of the council, citing indisposition, and tried to oppose its decisions, but in the end he signed them.
In the history of this council, one should distinguish between its religious meaning, which consists in the triumph of the Orthodox dogma that divine and human nature are united in Christ, inseparably and inseparably, and the political intrigues that accompanied it. Justinian's direct goal was not achieved: reconciliation with the Monophysites did not occur, and there was almost a break with the Western bishops, dissatisfied with the decisions of the council. However, this council played a big role in the spiritual consolidation of the Orthodox Church, and this was extremely important both at that time and for subsequent eras. The reign of Justinian I was a period of religious upsurge. It was at this time that church poetry, written in simple language, began to develop, one of the most prominent representatives of which was Roman Sladkopevets. This was the heyday of Palestinian monasticism, the time of John Climacus and Isaac the Syrian.
There was also a turning point in political affairs. In 552, Justinian equipped a new army for a campaign in Italy. This time she set off by land through Dalmatia under the command of the eunuch Narses, a brave commander and cunning politician. In the decisive battle, Totila's cavalry attacked the troops of Narses, formed in a crescent, came under cross-fire from archers from the flanks, took to flight and crushed their own infantry. Totila was seriously wounded and died. Within a year, the Byzantine army restored its dominance over all of Italy, and a year later Narses stopped and destroyed the hordes of Lombards pouring into the peninsula.
Italy was saved from terrible plunder. In 554, Justinian continued his conquests in the Western Mediterranean, attempting to capture Spain. It was not possible to do this completely, but a small area in the southeast of the country and the Strait of Gibraltar came under the rule of Byzantium. The Mediterranean Sea once again became the "Roman Lake". In 555 Imperial troops defeated a huge Persian army at Lazika. Khosrow I first signed a truce for six years, and then peace. It was also possible to cope with the Slavic threat: Justinian I entered into an alliance with the nomadic Avars, who took upon themselves the protection of the Danube border of the empire and the fight against the Slavs. In 558 this treaty came into force. The long-awaited peace came for the Roman Empire.
The last years of the reign of Justinian I (559-565) passed quietly. The finances of the empire, weakened by a quarter-century of struggle and a terrible epidemic, were restored, the country healed its wounds. The 84-year-old emperor did not abandon his theological studies and hopes of ending the schism in the Church. He even wrote a treatise on the incorruptibility of the body of Christ, close in spirit to the Monophysites. For resisting the emperor's new views, the Patriarch of Constantinople and many bishops ended up in exile. Justinian I was at the same time a continuer of the traditions of early Christians and the heir of the pagan Caesars. On the one hand, he fought against the fact that only priests were active in the Church, and the laity remained only spectators, on the other hand, he constantly interfered in church affairs, removing bishops at his discretion. Justinian carried out reforms in the spirit of the Gospel commandments - he helped the poor, alleviated the situation of slaves and colonists, restored cities - and at the same time subjected the population to cruel tax oppression. He tried to restore the authority of the law, but was never able to eliminate the corruption and abuse of officials. His attempts to restore peace and stability in the territory of the Byzantine Empire turned into rivers of blood. And yet, in spite of everything, Justinian's empire was an oasis of civilization surrounded by pagan and barbarian states and captured the imagination of his contemporaries.
The significance of the great emperor's deeds goes far beyond his time. Strengthening the position of the Church, the ideological and spiritual consolidation of Orthodoxy played a huge role in the formation of medieval society. The Code of Emperor Justinian I became the basis of European law in subsequent centuries.
To this day I remember them by heart and don’t like them, I’m afraid of these brittle lines, as if, having learned them, I was poisoned by them. I meet them from time to time - sometimes they are quoted. Every time I explain my hostility by saying that I probably taught them through force. I explain, knowing that this is not true. Much of what I love more than life, I taught through force - with fear and humility. Maybe some subtle poison penetrated into me then - with the dust of my youthful reading room, with the sound of someone else's wedding ring tapping on wood. Gold band on the ring finger. One day I got sick with the flu, and the day before I ate a full frying pan of fried zucchini. The smell has made me sick ever since.
And the only glance
After the winter holidays, our English group was left without a teacher. Lydia Alexandrovna's husband enlisted in Egypt to build the Aswan Dam. A replacement was not selected in advance. She probably kept her family plans secret until the last minute - she was afraid of jinxing it. As usual, our group was divided into two and sent to others: half to Valentina Pavlovna, half to Boris Grigorievich. I always went to B.G. because my Irka studied with him. A month later he fell ill. I remember this day. We sat at desks in groups of three - there are always few desks in English classrooms, and without making a fuss, we hoped that they would leave us alone and forget about us. Ten minutes passed from the lesson. Hopes came true. The door swung open, Sashka Guchkov rushed in like a devil on a broom. "Seka! They're coming! With the headmistress!" The door whined and opened again. We got up from our seats. The outermost stood in the aisles, freezing like a soldier. The middle ones were hunched over, hanging over the desks. A small, impossibly small woman came in, closed the door behind her and waved her hand. There was no headmistress. The woman said her name, which was unusual for our Russian-English ears, and spoke in English. The noise died down. None of the teachers So didn't speak English. It’s not that they didn’t know the language; we knew it even worse. This probably sounds strange, but the English we were used to was no different from mathematics or literature: English for second-graders, English for sixth-graders. He was by our standards or a little taller. The teachers taught us the way our parents bought clothes.
She spoke freely and quickly, without any fear that we would not understand, as if she knew in advance that it was impossible not to understand. Almost without looking at us, she told some story of hers, from time to time she came up to the board and quickly scribbled an English word with white chalk - without translation. We heard this word for the first time, and she knew about it in advance. We saw it emerge white from under her hand, and that was enough for both her and us, as if she trusted our eyes more than our ears, as if our eyes had already encountered this word before and recognized it, I should have written to her. Her English was light and cheerful, her jokes were quick, her heels were thin and high. I was probably about to say something to Irka, because, distracted for a second, I saw Irka’s gloomy face and eyes squinted to the side, as then, during that conversation of ours. It was as if Irka, turning away from my arguments, continued that conversation, but this time not with me. For a second or two I still stood at the threshold - an unexpected guest. Then she turned away and walked away. I became eyes again, as keen as hawks. She looked forward, now at the board, now at the little woman standing straight as a bowstring. She didn’t see me, and how could it even have occurred to her to snatch someone from behind the desks of a crowded class, to single me out from the present for the sake of a dubious future. This required other eyes, looking at both of us from afar. They were unknown to me, twelve years old, I couldn’t tell the difference. All I could manage was to hear a voice: “You will always be with her.” The bell rang. She fell silent, as if she had stopped mid-sentence. She used the call as a threshold that she did not want to cross. The call gave her every right to do so. She walked back to the teacher's table and approached him for the first time in the entire lesson. Everyone headed towards the exit, still smiling at her story. As they passed, everyone said “goodbye,” and she said goodbye to everyone. Calm and indifferent. She didn't care whether she saw us again. She was still standing straight, but I could already see how the bowstring had weakened. Everyone left, and I walked forward down the aisle alone.
She watched as I approached and became smaller with each step, so that in the end she could hardly distinguish. She became bigger, the narrow wings of her nose became longer, her cheekbones became sharper, her smile emptier, leaving no hope. It was not too late to simply say “goodbye.” "Will you tell me more?" I don't know what made me ask. I was alone, but did she really not know at that moment, the only one in our entire life? already Did I know? I asked and became big again, bigger than her. She winced, my words were monstrously rude to her, she had to muster the strength to restrain herself. I retreated, not fully realizing what had happened, but already shuddering from what I had done, and then my children’s teachers stood behind me - fear and melancholy. For six years, while I was learning everything in the world at my own peril and risk, they did not make themselves felt. But now, oh, how cleverly they chose the timing. They came down to help from my ancient years, as if from heaven. The rustle of wings rising above my head like arms - for protection, so that I understood that I loved her.
Lord, why did you leave me? I didn’t know the words, I couldn’t speak, I was speechless. What could my dumb teachers teach me? This is me saying, the one I have become now - in my forties. Now I know a lot of words, both Russian and English. I know words that are smarter than me, they themselves become me, my memory, my thoughts. I know how to swallow them like a triad and put them under my tongue like validol. Russian and English - double-action painkillers. What can I know about time, about His time? They say He always looks at us, and if He looks away, you can always call us. Why am I still sure that it’s different with me? At me - one single moment, one single glance - then. There is no rule or law, at least not that I can deduce. Insignificant and weak. Well, let it be so: fear and longing and a single look.
I wasn't actually numb. The very next day I hardly remembered this incident and chatted as if nothing had happened. Even when I came to an English lesson and saw her with my own eyes, I forgot about my night terrors and listened excitedly. The lessons went on as usual, she never returned to that story, didn’t even remember, as if the whole story and the white chalk were needed only for the first acquaintance, in order to look with almost indifferent eyes how All walk past her, muttering "goodbye." Meanwhile, B.G. went to work, and the number of English groups returned to the original three. After a long break of chatter, Irka Eisner spoke to me seriously again. She was determined to join F’s group. Averting her eyes, Irka said that she needed such quality of teaching, but how can you say about it... In general, she persuaded me to go to B.G. together. B.G. listened calmly. I don’t know if he was offended: Irka is the best in the class. Accurate mathematical mind, memory, conscientiousness. Interrupting each other, we talked about friendship. He agreed immediately. He said he would miss her. The only condition is to select someone from my group who would agree to go to him instead of Irka - voluntarily. Most likely, this condition seemed easy to him. We, leaving his office, stood neither alive nor dead, because - here not one of us took our eyes off - who, in their right mind, would agree to leave F. And yet Irka did not want to give up. I went through last names. We agreed on Lariska Panferova. Threes. Crazy as hell. In the group B.G. girlfriend. They lied accurately and artistically. He wants to transfer because we are friends. B.G. I don't mind, I just asked for a replacement. He is kinder, he asks less brutally. Myself offered it to Panferov. Lariska agreed immediately. We at Irkoy felt like winners. Finally, we said. Of course it's convenient. We called each other in the evenings and discussed homework.
At night I was in pain. Pain flowed from the eyes like tears, oozed from the mouth like saliva. The pillow, soaked in pain, became wet like a baby sheet. I didn't get up to dry. The horror of death - her death - weakened me. From night to night I saw the same thing. What I saw in reality twenty-five years later. Overnight the pain dried up on its own. By morning, yellowish stains remained on the blue pillowcase. So I cried my eyes out. Three months later my vision deteriorated. By May the eyes became bad: 07–06. They gave me some medicine and released me from classes for two weeks. I came to school and listened. I could neither read nor write. Then they prescribed me glasses. The frame was ugly. The fear of her death let me go. Now I was afraid of going blind.
During the reign of Justinian I (527 - 565), the Byzantine Empire reached the pinnacle of power. This emperor tried to restore the Roman Empire to its former borders.
By order of Emperor Justinian I, in 528-534, a collection of laws, the Code of Civil Law, was concluded, which united long-standing Roman legal norms and the spiritual values of Christianity. The "Code..." proclaimed the equality of all citizens before the law. Although slavery was not abolished, it was forbidden to kill slaves and they were given the opportunity to free themselves. Justinian's laws equalized the rights of man and woman and prohibited divorce, which was condemned by the Christian Church. The Code proclaimed the idea of unlimited and absolute power of the emperor: “the will of the emperor is the source of laws.” The right to inviolability of private property was secured. The "Code..." became a model for the development of laws in most countries of Western Europe in the 12th - 14th centuries. Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G. Essays on the history of Byzantium and the South Slavs. St. Petersburg, “Aletheia”, 1998 p. 58
The transformations begun by Justinian required significant funds. Rising taxes, abuses and bribery of imperial officials sparked the 532 uprising in Constantinople. The uprising received the name "Nika" for the slogan of the rebels (Nika! - "Win!") The rebels dominated the city for eight days. Justinian even decided to run away, but on the advice of Theodora he stayed, declaring that he would rather die than lose power. The emperor bribed the leaders of the uprising, and with the help of detachments of barbarian mercenaries, he suppressed the uprising, killing about 35 thousand people.
Having suppressed the uprising, Justinian began to realize the main goal of his life - the restoration of the Roman Empire within its former borders. It contributed to the realization of his plans that the barbarian kingdoms in the West were experiencing a deep crisis at that time.
In 534, the Byzantine army led by the outstanding commander Belisarius defeated the Vandals and captured North Africa. Next, the army of Belisarius, capturing Fr. Sicily, broke into Italy. The support of the Byzantines by the Christian Church and the population of Italy played a significant role. In 536, the army of Belisarius entered Rome without a fight, and within three years the Byzantines captured the capital of the barbarians, Ravenna. It seemed that Justinian had almost achieved his cherished goal, but then the Slavs and Persians began to attack Byzantium, taking advantage of the presence of its troops in Italy. The emperor recalled Belisarius and sent him with an army to defend the eastern borders. The commander coped with this task too. Before conquering lands in the West, Justinian returned only in 552. And although he managed to restore the borders of the Roman Empire from the time of Emperor Constantinian, he almost doubled the territory of his state. Dil S. Main problems of Byzantine history. M., 1947 p. 24
During the time of Justinian I, the Church of Hagia Sophia was built in Constantinople. Its construction, begun in 532, was supported by 10 thousand people for 5 years. From the outside the temple looked ordinary, but inside it was amazing in size. The giant mosaic vault with a diameter of 31 meters seemed to be hanging in the air without any support. This was achieved by the fact that the large bathhouse was supported by two pubs, each of which in turn rested on three small pubs. The four pillars holding up the vault were hidden, and only the triangle sails between the arches were clearly visible. The cross on the vault symbolized God's guardianship and protection of the empire. When the temple was consecrated in 537, Emperor Justinian I, enchanted by its majestic beauty, exclaimed: “Praise the Lord, who inspired me to accomplish such a thing! Solomon, I have surpassed you! Kazhdan A.P., Litavrin G.G. Essays on the history of Byzantium and Southern Slavs. St. Petersburg, “Aletheia”, 1998 p. 64
Justinian I the Great - Emperor of Byzantium from 527 to 565. Historians believe that Justinian was one of the greatest monarchs of late antiquity and the early Middle Ages.
Justinian was a reformer and commander who made the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Under him, the Roman system of government was discarded, which was replaced by a new one - the Byzantine one.
Under Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its dawn, after a long period of decline, the monarch tried to restore the empire and return it to its former greatness.
Historians believe that the main goal of Justinian's foreign policy was the revival of the Roman Empire within its former borders, which was to turn into a Christian state. As a result, all the wars waged by the emperor were aimed at expanding his territories, especially to the west (the territories of the fallen Western Roman Empire).
Under Justinian, the territory of the Byzantine Empire reached its largest size for the entire existence of the empire. Justinian managed to almost completely restore the former borders of the Roman Empire.
After concluding peace in the East with Persia, Justinian protected himself from attack from the rear and gave Byzantium the opportunity to launch a campaign to invade Western Europe. First of all, Justinian decided to declare war on the German kingdoms. This was a reasonable decision, because during this period there were wars between the barbarian kingdoms, and they were weakened before the Byzantine invasion.
In 533, Justinian sent an army to conquer the kingdom of the Vandals. The war was successful for Byzantium and already in 534 Justinian won a decisive victory. Then his gaze fell on the Ostrogoths of Italy. The war with the Ostrogoths was successful, and the king of the Ostrogoths had to turn to Persia for help.
Justinian captures Italy and almost the entire coast of North Africa, and the southeastern part of Spain. Thus, the territory of Byzantium doubles, but does not reach the former borders of the Roman Empire.
Already in 540, the Persians broke the peace treaty and prepared for war. Justinian found himself in a difficult position, because Byzantium could not withstand a war on two fronts.
In addition to an active foreign policy, Justinian also pursued a reasonable domestic policy. Justinian actively began strengthening the state apparatus and also tried to improve taxation. Under the emperor, civil and military positions were combined, and attempts were made to reduce corruption by increasing pay to officials.
Justinian was popularly nicknamed the “sleepless emperor,” as he worked day and night to reform the state.
Historians believe that Justinian's military successes were his main merit, but internal politics, especially in the second half of his reign, left the state's treasury practically empty, and his ambitions could not be properly manifested.
Emperor Justinian left behind a huge architectural monument that still exists today - the Hagia Sophia. This building is considered a symbol of the “golden age” in the empire. This cathedral is the second largest Christian church in the world, second only to St. Paul's Cathedral in the Vatican. By this, the emperor achieved the favor of the Pope and the entire Christian world.
During the reign of Justinian, the world's first plague pandemic broke out and spread throughout the Byzantine Empire. The largest number of victims was recorded in the capital of the empire, Constantinople, where 40% of the total population died. According to historians, the total number of plague victims reached about 30 million, and possibly more.
Achievements of the Empire under Justinian
As already mentioned, Justinian’s greatest achievement is considered to be his active foreign policy, which expanded the territory of Byzantium twice, practically returning all the lost lands after the fall of Rome in 476.
As a result of wars, the state treasury was depleted, and this led to riots and uprisings. However, the rebellion prompted Justinian to make a huge architectural achievement - the construction of the Hagia Sophia.
The greatest legal achievement was the publication of new laws that were to apply throughout the empire. The emperor took Roman law and threw out outdated instructions from it, and thereby left the most necessary ones. The set of these laws was called the “Code of Civil Law”.
A huge breakthrough occurred in military affairs. Justinian managed to create the largest professional mercenary army of that period. This army brought him many victories and expanded his borders. However, it also depleted the treasury.
The first half of the reign of Emperor Justinian is called the “golden age of Byzantium,” while the second only caused discontent on the part of the people.
Flavius Peter Sabbatius Justinian (lat. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus, Greek. Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός), better known as Justinian I (Greek Ιουσ τινιανός Α) or Justinian the Great (Greek Μέγας Ιουστινιανός; 483, Taurese, Upper Macedonia - November 14, 565 , Constantinople). Byzantine Emperor from August 1, 527 until his death in 565. Justinian himself in his decrees called himself Caesar Flavius Justinian of Alaman, Gothic, Frankish, Germanic, Antian, Alanian, Vandal, African.
Justinian, a general and reformer, is one of the most prominent monarchs of late antiquity. His reign marks an important stage in the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages and, accordingly, the transition from Roman traditions to the Byzantine style of government. Justinian was full of ambition, but he failed to accomplish the “restoration of the empire” (Latin: renovatio imperii). In the West, he managed to take possession of most of the lands of the Western Roman Empire, which collapsed after the Great Migration, including the Apennine Peninsula, the southeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula and part of North Africa. Another important event is Justinian's order to revise Roman law, which resulted in a new set of laws - the Justinian Code (lat. Corpus iuris civilis). By decree of the emperor, who wanted to surpass Solomon and the legendary Temple of Jerusalem, the burnt Hagia Sophia in Constantinople was completely rebuilt, striking in its beauty and splendor and remaining for a thousand years the most grandiose temple in the Christian world.
In 529 Justinian closed the Platonic Academy in Athens, and in 542 the emperor abolished the post of consul, possibly for financial reasons. Increasing worship of the ruler as a saint finally destroyed the illusion of the principate that the emperor was first among equals (Latin primus inter pares). During the reign of Justinian, the first plague pandemic in Byzantium and the largest riot in the history of Byzantium and Constantinople took place - the Nika uprising, provoked by tax oppression and the emperor's church policies.
There are various versions and theories regarding the origins of Justinian and his family. Most sources, mainly Greek and Eastern (Syrian, Arabic, Armenian), as well as Slavic (entirely based on Greek), call Justinian a Thracian; some Greek sources and the Latin chronicle of Victor Tonnennesis call him an Illyrian; finally, Procopius of Caesarea claims that the birthplace of Justinian and Justin was Dardania. There is no contradiction in all these three definitions. At the beginning of the 6th century, the civil administration of the Balkan Peninsula was divided between two prefectures. Praefectura praetorio per Illyricum, the smaller of them, included two dioceses - Dacia and Macedonia. Thus, when sources write that Justin was an Illyrian, they mean that he and his family were residents of the Illyrian prefecture. In turn, the province of Dardania was part of the diocese of Dacia. The Thracian theory of the origin of Justinian can also be confirmed by the fact that the name Sabbatius most likely comes from the name of the ancient Thracian deity Sabazius.
Until the end of the 19th century, the theory of the Slavic origin of Justinian, based on the work of a certain abbot Theophilus (Bogumil) published by Niccolò Alamanni, entitled Iustiniani Vita, was popular. It introduces special names for Justinian and his relatives that have a Slavic sound.
Thus, Justinian's father, called Savvatius according to Byzantine sources, was called Istokus by Bogomil, and the name of Justinian himself sounded like Upravda. Although the origins of Alleman's published book were in doubt, theories based on it were intensively developed until James Bryce conducted research on the original manuscript in the library of the Barberini Palace in 1883. In an article published in 1887, he argued that this document was of no historical value, and Bogumil himself hardly existed. Nowadays, Iustiniani Vita is considered as one of the legends linking the Slavs with great figures of the past such as Alexander the Great and Justinian.
Regarding the birthplace of Justinian, Procopius speaks out quite definitely, placing it in a place called Tauresium, next to the fort of Bederiana. About this place, Procopius further says that next to it the city of Justiniana Prima was subsequently founded, the ruins of which are now located in the south-east of Serbia. Procopius also reports that Justinian significantly strengthened and made numerous improvements in the city of Ulpiana, renaming it Justiniana Secunda. Nearby he built another city, calling it Justinopolis, in honor of his uncle.
Most of the cities of Dardania were destroyed during the reign of Anastasius by a powerful earthquake in 518. Justinopolis was built next to the destroyed capital of the province of Scupi, and a powerful wall with four towers was erected around Tauresia, which Procopius calls Tetrapyrgia.
The names "Bederiana" and "Tavresius" have come down to our time in the form of the names of the villages of Bader and Taor near Skopje. Both of these places were explored in 1885 by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, who found rich numismatic material there confirming the importance of the settlements located here after the 5th century. Evans concluded that the Skopje area was the birthplace of Justinian, confirming the identification of old settlements with modern villages.
The name of Justinian's mother, Justin's sister, Biglenica, is given in Iustiniani Vita, the unreliability of which is stated above. Since there is no other information on this matter, we can assume that her name is unknown. The fact that Justinian's mother was Justin's sister is confirmed by numerous sources.
There is more reliable news about Father Justinian. In The Secret History, Procopius gives the following account: “They say that his [Justinian’s] mother used to tell someone close to him that he was not born from her husband Savvatius or from any other person. Before she became pregnant with him, she was visited by a demon, invisible, but leaving her with the impression that he was with her and had intercourse with her, like a man with a woman, and then disappeared, as in a dream..
From here we learn the name of Justinian's father - Savvaty. Another source where this name is mentioned is the so-called “Acts regarding Callopodium”, included in the chronicle of Theophanes and the “Easter Chronicle” and relating to the events immediately preceding the uprising of Nika. There, the Prasins, during a conversation with the emperor’s representative, utter the phrase “It would have been better if Savvaty had not been born, he would not have given birth to a murderer son”.
Savvaty and his wife had two children, Peter Savvaty (lat. Petrus Sabbatius) and Vigilantia (lat. Vigilantia). Written sources nowhere mention the real name of Justinian, and only on the consular diptychs of 521 do we see the inscription lat. Fl. Petr. Sabbat. Justinian. v. i., com. mag. eqq. et p. praes., et c. od., meaning lat. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus, vir illustris, comes, magister equitum et peditum praesentalium et consul ordinarius.
The marriage of Justinian and Theodora was childless, however, he had six nephews and nieces, of whom Justin II became heir.
Justinian's uncle, Justin, along with other Illyrian peasants, fleeing extreme poverty, came on foot from Bederiana to Byzantium and hired himself into military service. Arriving at the end of the reign of Leo I in Constantinople and enlisting in the imperial guard, Justin quickly rose in service, and already during the reign of Anastasia he took part in the wars with Persia as a military leader. Further, Justin distinguished himself in suppressing the uprising of Vitalian. Thus, Justin won the favor of Emperor Anastasius and was appointed chief of the palace guard with the rank of comite and senator.
The time of Justinian's arrival in the capital is not known exactly. It is assumed that this happened around the age of twenty-five, and then for some time Justinian studied theology and Roman law, after which he was awarded the title of Lat. candidati, that is, the emperor's personal bodyguard. Somewhere around this time, the adoption and change of name of the future emperor took place.
After the death of Anastasius in 518, Justin was able to seize power with relative ease, despite the fact that there were a large number of richer and more powerful candidates. According to Procopius, this was the will of higher powers interested in the ultimate rise of Justinian. The election procedure is described by Peter Patricius. Among the reasons that ensured the election of Justin and the rise of Justinian is the support of Patriarch John II, who was assured that the new dynasty would be faithful to the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, in contrast to the pro-Monophysite Anastasius. The theologically educated Justinian probably played an important role in this. Immediately after the election of Justin as emperor, he appointed his nephew Lat. comes domesticorum as the head of a special corps of palace guards, as is known from a letter from Pope Hormizd, dated early 519.
In 521, as mentioned above, Justinian received a consular title, which he used to increase his popularity by staging magnificent shows in the circus, which grew so much that the Senate asked the elderly emperor to appoint Justinian as his co-emperor. According to the chronicler John Zonara, Justin refused this offer. The Senate, however, continued to insist on Justinian's elevation, asking that he be given the title of Lat. nobilissimus, which happened until 525, when he was awarded the highest rank of Caesar. Although such a distinguished career was bound to have real influence, there is no reliable information about Justinian's role in the administration of the empire during this period.
Over time, the emperor's health deteriorated, and the illness caused by an old wound in the leg worsened. Feeling the approach of death, Justin responded to another petition from the Senate to appoint Justinian as co-emperor. The ceremony, which has come down to us in the description of Peter Patricius in the treatise lat. De ceremoniis of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, occurred on Easter, April 4, 527 - Justinian and his wife Theodora were crowned Augustus and Augustus.
Justinian finally gained full power after the death of Emperor Justin I on August 1, 527.
Few descriptions of Justinian's appearance have survived. Justinian was depicted on one of the largest (36 solidi or ½-pound) known medallions, stolen in 1831 from the Paris medal cabinet. The medallion was melted down, but its images and a cast were preserved, allowing copies to be made from it.
The Roman-German Museum in Cologne houses a copy of the statue of Justinian made of Egyptian marble. Some idea of the emperor’s appearance is given by the surviving drawings of Justinian’s Column, erected in 542. Discovered in Kerch in 1891 and now kept in the Hermitage, the silver missorium was originally considered to be an image of Justinian. Perhaps Justinian is also depicted on the famous Barberini diptych, kept in the Louvre.
A large number of coins were issued during the reign of Justinian. Donative coins of 36 and 4.5 solidi are known, a solidi with a full-figure image of the emperor in consular vestments, as well as an exceptionally rare aureus weighing 5.43 g, minted on an Old Roman foot. The obverse of all these coins is occupied by either a three-quarter or profile bust of the emperor, with or without a helmet.
A vivid portrayal of the early career of the future empress is given in copious detail in The Secret History; John of Ephesus simply notes that “she came from a brothel.” Despite the opinion of some scholars that all these claims are unreliable and exaggerated, the generally accepted view generally agrees with Procopius's account of the events of Theodora's early career.
Justinian's first meeting with Theodora took place around 522 in Constantinople. Then Theodora left the capital and spent some time in Alexandria. How their second meeting took place is not known for certain. It is known that wanting to marry Theodora, Justinian asked his uncle to assign her the rank of patrician, but this caused strong opposition from Empress Euphemia, and until the latter’s death in 523 or 524, the marriage was impossible.
Probably related to Justinian's desire was the adoption of the law "On Marriage" (lat. De nuptiis) during Justin's reign, which repealed the law of Emperor Constantine I prohibiting a person who had reached the senatorial rank from marrying a harlot.
After marriage, Theodora completely broke with her turbulent past and was a faithful wife.
In foreign policy, the name of Justinian is associated primarily with the idea "restoration of the Roman Empire" or "Reconquista of the West". There are currently two theories regarding the question of when this goal was set. According to one of them, now more widespread, the idea of the return of the West existed in Byzantium since the end of the 5th century. This point of view is based on the thesis that after the emergence of the barbarian kingdoms professing Arianism, there must have been social elements that did not recognize the loss of Rome's status as a great city and capital of the civilized world and did not agree with the dominant position of the Arians in the religious sphere.
An alternative point of view, which does not deny the general desire to return the West to the fold of civilization and orthodox religion, places the emergence of a program of specific actions after successes in the war against the Vandals. This is supported by various indirect signs, for example, the disappearance from legislation and state documentation of the first third of the 6th century of words and expressions that somehow mentioned Africa, Italy and Spain, as well as the loss of interest of the Byzantines in the first capital of the empire.
Perceiving himself as the heir of the Roman Caesars, Justinian considered it his duty to recreate the Roman Empire, while wanting the state to have one law and one faith. Based on the principle of absolute power, he believed that in a well-established state everything should be subject to the imperial attention. Understanding the importance of the church for government, he made every effort to ensure that it carried out his will. The question of the primacy of Justinian's state or religious interests is debatable. It is at least known that the emperor was the author of numerous letters on religious topics addressed to popes and patriarchs, as well as treatises and church hymns.
This is what the emperor’s contemporary, Procopius of Caesarea, wrote about his attitude towards the church and the Christian faith: “He seemed to be firm in the Christian faith, but this also turned out to be death for his subjects. Indeed, he allowed the clergy to oppress their neighbors with impunity, and when they seized the lands adjacent to their possessions, he shared their joy, believing that in this way he was demonstrating his piety. And when he judged such cases, he believed that he was doing a good deed if someone, hiding behind shrines, walked away, appropriating what did not belong to him.” (Procopius of Caesarea “The Secret History” ch. XIII, part 4.5).
In accordance with his desire, Justinian considered it his right not only to decide issues related to the leadership of the church and its property, but also to establish a certain dogma among his subjects. Whatever religious direction the emperor adhered to, his subjects had to adhere to the same direction. Justinian regulated the life of the clergy, filled the highest hierarchical positions at his discretion, and acted as a mediator and judge in the clergy. He patronized the church in the person of its ministers, contributed to the construction of temples, monasteries, and the increase in their privileges; finally, the emperor established religious unity among all subjects of the empire, gave the latter the norm of orthodox teaching, participated in dogmatic disputes and gave the final decision on controversial dogmatic issues.
Such a policy of secular predominance in religious and church affairs, right down to the secret places of a person’s religious beliefs, especially clearly demonstrated by Justinian, received in history the name of Caesaropapism, and this emperor is considered one of the most typical representatives of this trend.
Justinian took steps to completely eradicate the remnants of paganism. In 529 he closed the famous philosophical school in Athens. This had a predominantly symbolic meaning, since by the time of the event this school had lost its leading position among the educational institutions of the empire after the University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century under Theodosius II. After the school was closed under Justinian, Athenian professors were expelled, some of them moved to Persia, where they met an admirer of Plato in the person of Khosrow I; the school's property was confiscated. John of Ephesus wrote: “In the same year in which St. Benedict destroyed the last pagan national sanctuary in Italy, namely the temple of Apollo in the sacred grove on Monte Cassino, and the stronghold of ancient paganism in Greece was also destroyed." From then on, Athens finally lost its former significance as a cultural center and turned into a remote provincial city. Justinian did not achieve the complete eradication of paganism; it continued to hide in some inaccessible areas. Procopius of Caesarea writes that the persecution of pagans was carried out not so much out of a desire to establish Christianity, but rather out of a thirst to seize the gold of pagan temples.
In The Divine Comedy, having placed Justinian in Paradise, he trusts him to make a historical overview of the Roman Empire (The Divine Comedy, Paradise, canto 6). According to Dante, Justinian's main services to history were the reform of law, the renunciation of Monophysitism and the campaigns of Belisarius.
