Waterloo Congress of Vienna. Congress of Vienna. Vienna diplomatic system
Vienna Congress of the Victors 1814–1815 Viennese congress (1814–1815), peace conference European countries in Vienna in September 1814 - June 1815 to regulate the political situation in Europe in the conditions of the defeat of Napoleonic France. Convened under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814 between France and the Sixth Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia), which was later joined by Spain, Portugal and Sweden.
In September 1814, preliminary negotiations between the victorious countries took place in Vienna, attempting to develop a common position before the start of the Congress; The negotiations, however, ended in failure due to serious contradictions between their participants. Russia laid claim to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed by Napoleon in 1807–1809 from Polish lands belonging to Austria and Prussia, but such a strengthening of Russia did not meet the interests of its allies. Prussia intended to annex Napoleon's allied Saxony, but this was strongly opposed by Austria, which intended to turn Germany into a federation of monarchies under its supremacy; The Austrian Habsburgs also planned to establish their hegemony in Italy. The allies were united in only one thing - to deprive France of its leading role in Europe and reduce its territory to the borders of 1792. On September 22, they agreed to remove France, along with Spain, Portugal and Sweden, from real participation in the work of the Congress. But the French delegation, headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince S.-M., arrived in Vienna on September 23. Talleyrand managed to achieve full participation in the negotiations.
Congress opened in early November 1814; It was attended by 450 diplomats from 126 European states, with the exception of Turkey. Decisions were made at meetings of representatives of the five powers (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, France) or in special bodies - the Committee on German Affairs (created on October 14), the Committee on Swiss Affairs (November 14), the Statistical Commission (December 24), etc. .d.
The main and most pressing issue turned out to be the Polish-Saxon one. Even at the stage of preliminary negotiations (September 28), Russia and Prussia entered into a secret agreement, according to which Russia pledged to support Prussia’s claims to Saxony in exchange for support of its claims to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. But these plans encountered opposition from France, which did not want to expand Prussian influence in Northern Germany. Appealing to the principle of legitimism (restoration of legal rights), Sh.-M. Talleyrand attracted Austria and the small German states to his side. Under pressure from the French, the English government also changed its position in favor of the Saxon king Frederick Augustus I. In response, Russia withdrew its occupation forces from Saxony and transferred it to Prussian control (November 10). There was a threat of a split in the Sixth Coalition and a military conflict between Russia and Prussia with Great Britain, Austria and France.
The subject of discussion at the Congress were other important issues - the political structure of Germany and borders German states, status of Switzerland, political situation in Italy, navigation on international rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Moselle, etc.), trade in blacks. Russia's attempt to raise the question of the position of the Christian population in the Ottoman Empire and granting it the right to intervene in its defense did not meet with the understanding of other powers.
One of the most difficult was the question of the Kingdom of Naples. France demanded that Napoleonic Marshal I. Murat be deprived of the Neapolitan throne and the local branch of the Bourbon dynasty restored; she managed to win Great Britain over to her side. However, the plans to overthrow Murat were opposed by Austria, which in January 1814 guaranteed the inviolability of his possessions as payment for betraying Napoleon and for going over to the side of the Sixth Coalition.
March 1, 1815 Napoleon, having left the place of his exile on Fr. Elba, landed in France. On March 13, the participating powers of the Peace of Paris outlawed him and promised assistance to the legitimate King Louis XVIII. However, already on March 20, the Bourbon regime fell; On March 25, Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia formed the Seventh Anti-French Coalition. Napoleon's attempt to split it and come to an agreement with Alexander I failed. On April 12, Austria declared war on Murat and quickly defeated his army; On May 19, Bourbon power was restored in Naples. On June 9, representatives of the eight powers signed the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna.
According to its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Prussia abandoned Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired North Saxony, a number of regions on the Rhine (Rhine Province), Swedish Pomerania and about. Rügen. South Saxony remained under the rule of Frederick Augustus I. In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of almost two thousand states, abolished by Napoleon in 1806, the German Union arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria.
Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; the thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburg; The Sardinian kingdom was restored, to which Genoa was transferred and Savoy and Nice returned.
Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded to include Wallis, Geneva and Neufchatel. Denmark lost Norway, which went to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this.
Belgium and Holland formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of the Orange dynasty; Luxembourg became part of it on the basis of a personal union. England secured the Ionian Islands and Fr. in the Mediterranean Sea. Malta, in the West Indies. Saint Lucia and Fr. Tobago, in the Indian Ocean Seychelles Islands and. Ceylon, Cape Colony in Africa; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.
The Congress of Vienna was the first attempt to establish lasting peace in Europe on the basis of a collective agreement of all European states; concluded agreements could not be terminated unilaterally, but they could be changed with the consent of all participants. To guarantee European borders, in September 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia created the Holy Alliance, which France joined in November. The Vienna System ensured a long period of peace and relative stability in Europe. However, it was vulnerable because it was based largely on the political-dynastic rather than the national principle and ignored the essential interests of many European peoples (Belgians, Poles, Germans, Italians); it consolidated the fragmentation of Germany and Italy under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs; Prussia found itself cut into two parts (western and eastern), which were in a hostile environment.
The Viennese system began to collapse in 1830–1831, when rebellious Belgium broke away from the Kingdom of the Netherlands and gained independence. The final blow was dealt to it by the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War of 1859, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, as a result of which the united Italian and German states emerged.
Diplomacy of Alexander I, Metternich, Talleyrand.
All participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon. Russia led by Alexander I, Great Britain first led by Keslereagh and then Wellington, Austria led by Franz I and Prussia led by Hardenberg were represented here. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. Despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues. The distrust of the Congress participants in each other and the contradictions that reigned between them allowed Talleyrand to achieve French participation in the Congress on an equal basis with the winners. Going to Vienna, he put forward a proposal that the participants in the Congress, when establishing new borders, proceed from the need to preserve without changes everything that existed before 1792, i.e. France wanted to receive guarantees of preserving its territory, and Russia and Prussia should were to remain in their own interests. This principle is known as the “principle of legitimism.” France was afraid of the strengthening of Russia, but even more of Prussia. To prevent him, Talleyrand, being a master of intrigue, entered into secret negotiations with Lord Keslereagh and Metternich, and tried to organize joint actions of France, England and Austria against Russia. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, so as not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
At Metternich's proposal, they agreed to create the so-called German Confederation consisting of 38 German states, as well as Austria and Prussia. France was most afraid of the strengthening of Prussia, which directly bordered it. Talleyrand brought to the attention of Alexander I that France would not support England and Austria, which opposed the creation of the Kingdom of Poland within the borders of Russia, and at the same time would not agree to the inclusion of Saxony in Prussia. Alexander I was confident that Prussia would receive Saxony, and Russia would receive the Duchy of Warsaw, which he intended to include the Bialystok and Tarnopol regions. After long negotiations, Talleyrand obtained the consent of Metternich and Keslereagh to conclude an alliance of England, Austria and France against Prussia and Russia, and on January 3, 1815, a secret agreement was signed containing the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent the annexation of Saxony to Prussia on any terms. The three powers pledged not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, the annexation of territories to a particular country or their separation. And we were talking about Saxony here. To prevent Saxony from being transferred to Prussia by force, France, Austria and England agreed on a joint military action, each contributing 150 thousand troops. England was allowed to replace its contingent with mercenary troops from other countries or by paying 20 pounds sterling for each infantryman and 30 pounds sterling for each cavalryman. The three countries also pledged not to conclude a separate peace. This put Alexander I in a difficult position. The Russian emperor himself received everything he wanted, but his ally Prussia was deprived. Alexander could not and did not want to oppose the three powers, or wage war against them. In the end he had to give in.
Thus, Metternich managed to support France and prevent the strengthening of Prussia, an ally of Russia, at the expense of Saxony. But the secret agreement between England, Austria and France received wide publicity three months later, which influenced the further work of the Congress of Vienna. These events took place in Paris, during the historical period known as the “100 days”. Having landed in France with a small group of devoted soldiers and officers, Napoleon March 19, 1815. entered Paris. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently sent to Alexander I, who handed it over to the astonished Metternich.
Thanks to Alexander I, the construction of a completely unique Vienna world system became possible. Its stability was ensured by the pentarchy - the power of five powers. The Russian emperor found the core that ensured peace in Europe. To understand the idea of the Congress of Vienna, you need to turn to the interpersonal relations of Napoleon and Alexander I, whose genius many historians underestimate. Two great men were competing with each other to see which of them was greater. Napoleon was a genius of war. Alexander understood that it was impossible to compete with him in this field. Therefore, the Russian emperor chose to become a genius of the world.
There have always been many great commanders, but there have not been those who ensured long-term peace and prosperity. This explains his expansive and peaceful mood in Vienna. In fact, Alexander forced everyone to peace, forced other European rulers to share his philosophy of peace. And thanks in part to Alexander, France returned to the community of great powers. England was determined to keep defeated France behind bars for a long time, but the Russian emperor said no.
Talleyrand is a master of the art of the impossible. Without any trump cards in his hands, he brilliantly built his line. Imagine a team on a football field that is left with just six of them, but continues to play and score goals. That was Talleyrand. He immediately stated: if I am defeated, then I am condemned, but this is not an acceptable format for conversation; if you want to build a lasting peace, then I should not sit opposite you, but on the same side as you.
It was Talleyrand who returned France to the community of great powers. Who else was able to pull off all this when there was so much hatred against France, Napoleon’s entourage, to which the diplomat himself belonged? Talleyrand did it.
Metternich failed to prevent Russia's advance into the center of Europe and the creation of the Kingdom of Poland, but he was able to raise the question of the size of the new state. Austria retained its dominant position in both Germany and Italy. Metternich opposed the revival of the Holy Roman Empire led by the Habsburgs. Instead, he proposed the creation of a confederation of 38 member states, with Austria given the presidency of the general Diet, which was to meet in Frankfurt. Small states, fearing both the strengthening of Prussia and the national unification of Germany, had, of course, to support Austrian policies aimed at maintaining the status quo.
The intention to create a similar confederation in Italy did not materialize due to the resistance of the pope and the Naples king from the Bourbon dynasty, but Austrian dominance in the Apennine Peninsula was achieved by other means. Austria annexed Lombardy and Venice. In a number of lands in Central Italy - Tuscany, Parma, Modena - Habsburg princes ruled.
New territorial-state delimitation in Europe.
At the very beginning of the Congress of Vienna, its main participants almost quarreled among themselves over the division of those lands in Europe, which they considered their rightful reward for their contribution to the victory over Napoleon.
Russia actively sought satisfaction of its territorial claims, having played an extremely important role in final stage Napoleonic wars. It demanded that other countries recognize the legality of Finland joining it in 1809 and Bessarabia in 1812. Sharp disagreements arose between Austria and Prussia in connection with the latter's intention to seize Saxony - a relatively small German state, the whole fault of which was that it was a loyal ally of Napoleonic France: Saxony continued to fight on its side even when all its other allies had already left.
In the end, Russia and Prussia managed to come to an agreement among themselves. Prussia agreed to transfer the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw to Russia in exchange for agreeing to support its claims to Saxony. However, other states stubbornly refused to make any concessions.
The contradictions reached such intensity that it seemed that a split between yesterday's allies was inevitable. On January 3, 1815, Great Britain, France and the Austrian Empire entered into a secret military alliance, actually directed against Russia and Prussia. There was a smell of a new war in Europe.
Napoleon's attempt to regain the throne (known as the "Hundred Days") was very costly for France. On November 8 (20), 1815, the allies concluded a new peace treaty with her, according to which she lost a number of fortresses on the eastern border, as well as Savoy and Nice, and pledged to pay 700 million francs. indemnities. In addition, for a period of 3 to 5 years, France was subject to occupation by a 150,000-strong Allied army, which it itself had to support.
These actions of Napoleon and the fear of the “usurper” that gripped European courts helped smooth out the contradictions between the powers and pushed them to mutual concessions. As a result, Russia received the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Poznan remained part of Prussia, Galicia was retained by Austria, and Krakow was proclaimed a “free city.” As part of Russia, Polish lands received the status of an autonomous Kingdom (Kingdom) of Poland. In addition, participants in the Congress of Vienna recognized Russia's rights to Finland and Bessarabia. In both cases this was done in violation of historical law. The territory of the Duchy of Warsaw never belonged to Russia, and ethnically (language, religion) it had little in common with it. The same can be said about Finland, which has long been the possession of the Swedish kings. As part of Russia, it was an autonomous Grand Duchy (principality) of Finland.
As compensation for the loss of Finland, Sweden, as an active participant in the wars against Napoleonic France, received Norway. This country was in a union with Denmark for several centuries. What did Denmark do wrong before the allies? The fact that until the last moment she maintained an alliance with Napoleon, although the most shrewd European monarchs managed to break with him in time.
The dispute between Prussia and Austria over Saxony was settled amicably. Prussia eventually received part of Saxony, although it counted on its entire territory. But this was strongly opposed by Austria, which wanted to maintain a small, as they said then, buffer state between itself and Prussia. According to the views of that time, the presence of small states along the perimeter of their borders was considered by major powers as the most important guarantee of their own security. Prussia was quite content with this solution to the controversial issue, since it additionally received vast territories: Westphalia and the Rhineland in western Germany, part of the Polish lands, including Poznan and Thorn, as well as Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.
Austria also did not remain offended. Part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was returned to her, as well as possessions on the Balkan Peninsula, previously taken away by Napoleon. But Austria received the main reward for its contribution to the war against Napoleonic France in Northern Italy. She has been there since the beginning of the 18th century. owned Lombardy (capital Milan). Now in addition to this she received the territory of the Venetian Republic, including Dalmatia. The small states of central Italy - Tosca - ;| on, Parma, Modena, etc.
The small Sardinian kingdom (capital Turin), captured by the French back in the 90s of the 18th century, was restored as an independent state. Savoy and Nice, previously annexed by France, were returned to him. In recognition of its merits, it received the territory of the Genoese Republic, which was abolished at one time by the French and was never restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
The fate of the largest republics of the Middle Ages - Genoese and Venetian - abolished by Napoleon and not restored by the Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, was shared by the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland). Its territory, together with the Southern Netherlands, as well as Luxembourg, became part of the rather large Kingdom of the Netherlands. Such a state did not exist before. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was supposed to serve as a buffer between France and the German states, which saw in it an additional guarantee of their security.
The Swiss Confederation was preserved by the Congress of Vienna and received the status of a neutral state.
The principle of legitimism in its historical interpretation fully triumphed in Spain, where the Bourbon dynasty was restored, and in southern Italy. European monarchs decided not to restore the Holy Roman Empire to the German people. In fact, they came to terms with many of the territorial changes that Napoleon carried out in Germany. In particular, they did not live up to the hopes of the rulers of the hundreds of small estates he abolished. Most of them dissolved into Austria, Prussia or other larger German states.
At the Congress of Vienna, it was decided to form a new confederation within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire called the German Confederation. If in the Holy Roman Empire the relations between the head (emperor) and the members of the Empire (individual states) were of a feudal nature - the emperor was a lord, and the heads of individual states were his vassals - then in the German Confederation relations between members of the confederation were built on the basis of a treaty.
These decisions on territorial issues were for the most part enshrined in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. It also contained a declaration on freedom of river routes. As an annex to it, a declaration was adopted on the prohibition of the slave trade and regulations on the ranks of diplomatic representatives.
But not all the issues that caused concern to the powers and were discussed during the congress were reflected in the Final Act. In particular, it said nothing about the French and Dutch colonies captured by Great Britain during the war. Ultimately, she managed to retain the island of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, the Cape Colony in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.
Main decisions of the Congress of Vienna.
Belgium was annexed to Holland, which became the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with most of the former Grand Duchy of Warsaw going to Russia. Prussia acquired parts of Saxony and Westphalia, as well as the Rhineland. Austria was returned to the lands seized from it during the Napoleonic wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Venetian Republic, as well as Salzburg and some other territories were annexed to the Austrian Empire. Italy, about which Metternich contemptuously said that it “represents nothing more than a geographical concept,” was again fragmented into a number of states, given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), to which Genoa was annexed, the Savoy dynasty was restored. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchies of Modena and Parma came into the possession of various representatives of the Austrian House of Habsburg. In Rome, the temporal power of the pope was restored, to whom his former possessions were returned. In the Kingdom of Naples, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne. The small German states liquidated by Napoleon were not restored, and the number of German states was reduced by almost 10 times. Nevertheless, Germany's political fragmentation remained. There were 38 states left in Germany, which, together with Austria, only formally united into the German Confederation. The Congress of Vienna legalized the colonial seizures made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, and Guiana from Holland. In addition, England retained the island of Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. Thus, England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies. The borders of Switzerland were somewhat expanded, and Congress declared it a permanently neutral state. In Spain, back in April 1814, the Spanish Bourbon monarchy was restored. The “Final Act” of the Congress of Vienna, developed as a result of a long struggle in an atmosphere of secret agreements and intrigues, was signed on June 9, 1815. Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers that signed it to maintain peace and maintain the immutability of territorial borders.
A few words about the results of the Congress of Vienna, which completed its work at the beginning of June 1815. As we remember, the rapid return of Napoleon from the island of Elba and the restoration of the French empire accelerated the resolution of controversial issues between the victorious countries that had been agitating the minds of the meeting participants for several months. On May 3, 1815, treaties were signed between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which determined the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw, as well as between Prussia and Saxony.
Congress of Vienna
Book illustration
The Russian Sovereign left the congress two weeks before its end, having previously signed a manifesto About taking up arms against the kidnapper French throne by all powers that preserve the law of piety and truth. He went to the location of his army, which, under the leadership of Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly, was advancing towards the Rhine.
On June 8, the Act of the German Confederation was adopted, and the next day, June 9, the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna, consisting of 121 articles, cemented the new borders of states established as a result of the redistribution of Europe. In addition to the articles, the Final Act included 17 annexes, including the treaty on the division of Poland, the declaration on the abolition of the trade in blacks, the rules of navigation on border and international rivers, the provision on diplomatic agents, the act on the constitution of the German Confederation and others.
So, according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, Poland was divided. Most of the Duchy of Warsaw, under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of Russian Empire. Alexander I received the title of Tsar of Poland. From now on, thanks to the fact that in 1809, according to the Treaty of Friedrichsham, under the scepter Russian Emperor Finland departed, moving Swedish possessions away from Russian borders to the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, and in 1812 Bessarabia, with powerful water barriers in the form of the Prut and Dniester rivers, was created in the west of the empire. safety belt, which excluded a direct enemy invasion of Russian territory.
Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1814.
Borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna 1815: salad color - the Kingdom of Poland within Russia,
blue - part that went to Prussia, red - free city of Krakow
The western lands of Greater Poland with Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. And Austria received the southern part of Lesser Poland and most of Red Rus'. Krakow became a free city. The Congress of Vienna declared the granting of autonomy to the Polish lands in all its parts, but in fact this was carried out only in Russia, where, by the will of Emperor Alexander I, known for his liberal aspirations, the Kingdom of Poland was granted a constitution.
In addition to part of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia received North Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland, Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. The north of Italy returned to Austrian control: Lombardy and the Venetian region (Lombardy-Venetian Kingdom), the duchies of Tuscany and Parma, as well as Tyrol and Salzburg.
Map of the German Confederation, 1815
In addition to the Polish issue, the German question was a stumbling block at the negotiations in Vienna. The victorious powers were afraid of the formation of a monolithic German state in the very heart of Europe, but were not against the creation of a kind of confederation that served as an outpost at the borders of unpredictable France. After much debate within the borders of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the German Confederation was created - a confederation of different-sized German states: kingdoms, duchies, electors and principalities, as well as four city-republics (Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck). Four countries - Austria, Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands - belonged to the union with only part of their possessions. There were no strong economic ties, common legislation, common finances, or diplomatic services between these sovereign states. The only central authority was the Federal Diet, which met in Frankfurt am Main and consisted of representatives of the governments of the states that were part of the German Confederation. The Austrian Emperor presided over the Diet. The goal of the Union was also very modest: Preservation of external and internal security of Germany, independence and inviolability of individual German states.
England in Europe received Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islands, and with them a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea; in the North Sea - the Heligoland archipelago. In addition, it secured part of the conquered French and Dutch colonies: the Lucay Islands and Tobago in the West Indies, Mauritius east of Madagascar, and the cotton districts of the Netherlands Guinea, which further strengthened the maritime power of the British Crown.
Belgium was incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the auspices of William I of Orange-Nassau. France's ally Denmark lost Norway, which was transferred to Sweden, but received German Schleswig and Holstein. Switzerland, which included Wallis, Geneva and Neuchâtel, expanded its lands and acquired strategically important Alpine passes. It constituted a confederation of free, independent and neutral cantons. Spain and Portugal remained within their previous borders and returned to their ruling royal dynasties (the Spanish Bourbons and Braganzas, respectively)
Map of Italy in 1815
And finally, Italy, which, in the aptly caustic expression of Prince Metternich, after the decisions of the Congress of Vienna is nothing more than a geographical concept. Its territory was fragmented into eight small states: in the north two kingdoms - Sardinia (Piedmont) and Lombardo-Venetian, as well as four duchies - Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca; in the center is the Papal States with Rome as its capital, and in the south is the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Neapolitan-Sicilian). Thus, in Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, the Kingdom of Naples (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), after bloody battles and the flight of King Joachim Murat, was returned to the Bourbons, and Savoy, Nice were returned to the restored Kingdom of Sardinia and Genoa was given.
Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna
As Russian historian Lieutenant General Nikolai Karlovich Schilder summarized: Russia has increased its territory by about 2100 square meters. miles with a population of over three million; Austria acquired 2300 sq. miles with ten million people, and Prussia 2217 square meters. miles with 5,362,000 people. Thus, Russia, which bore the brunt of the three-year war with Napoleon on its shoulders and made the greatest sacrifices for the triumph of European interests, received the least reward. Regarding the most significant territorial gains of the Austrian Empire, Schilder echoes Petersburg letters French politician and diplomat Joseph-Marie de Maistre: she (Austria) succeeded get a huge win in a lottery for which she did not buy tickets...
But the main result of the Congress of Vienna was the creation new system international relations in Europe (called Vienna), based on the dominance of four great powers- Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, which was joined by France in 1818 after the withdrawal of the allied troops.
The international congress that ended the war of coalitions of European powers with Napoleonic France.
For-se-gave in Ve-not on September. 1814 - June 1815. 216 representatives of all European countries took part in his work. state-states (except for Turkey) headed by po-be-di-te-la-mi Na-po-le-o-na I Bo-na-par-ta - Russia -ey (Alexander I, K.V. Nessel-ro-de, A.K. Ra-zu-mov-sky, G. O. Shta-kel-berg), Ve-li-ko-bri -ta-ni-ey (R. S. Kas-lri, later A. Well-ling-ton, C. Stu-art and W. Cut-kart), Prus-si-ey (Friedrich Wil- Helm III, K. A. von Gardenberg, K. W. von Humboldt) and Av-st-ri-ey [Franz I (Franz II), K. Met-ter-nich, F. Genz , K.F. Shvartsenberg]. The highest Europeans have gathered in Vienna. know - 2 im-pe-ra-to-ra, 4 kings, 2 crown princes, 3 great dukes and 250 rulers -nyh princes. One of the last of them was a Frenchman who arrived in Vienna. de-le-ga-tion led by Sh. M. Ta-lei-ra-n.
Teach-st-ni-ki kon-gres-sa sta-vi-li in front of the following basics. for-da-chi: 1) restoration-sta-new-le-nie to-re-vo-luts. in a row in Europe, first of all, the re-tav-ra-tion overthrew the di-na-sties; 2) ter-ri-to-ri-al-ny re-deal in in-te-re-sakh der-zhav-po-be-di-tel-nits; 3) creation of a guarantee against the return to power of Na-po-le-o-na and the re-emergence of France for-vo-wat. wars; 4) creation of a system to combat the revolution. the danger that threatens Europe. mo-nar-hii from the shaking in the future.
V.K. proceeded in the form of two-sided consultations and negotiations with representatives of the department. states that have entered into battle with each other until the war and agreement. You guys got together only once - to sign the key. do-ku-men-ta. For the students of V.K., there were many or-ga-niz. ba-ly and other secular amazements, which gave rise to the establishment of Austria. di-pl-ma-tu book. de Li-nu call him “dancing congress.”
Why are you holding the be-di-tel-ni-tsy, under-pi-sav-shie of the Sho-mon trak-tat 1814, they asked -to agree on all the most important issues in order to impose your will on France and the rest -nym teaching-st-ni-kam kon-gres-sa. Once upon a time, the fate of Poland and Sak-so-nii was revealed li-li Sh. M. Ta-lei-ra-well, not only joining her in the “five-ter-ku”, and then in the “eight-mer-ku” (due to the inclusion of Is-pa-nii, Port-tu-ga-lii in the composition of the commission and Sweden), but also successfully influence decisions.
Three different people lived at the congress. we are approaching a decision on the issue of the next structure of Europe. At the initial stage, the idea of le-gi-ti-miz-ma was to-mi-ni-ro-va-la, any po-li-tich was from-verified. from the changes that have taken place on the continuum since 1789, and you have moved to restore the requirement to the floor -nom volume “legal order” in Europe, ga-ran-ty-ruying from the new re-vo-luts. explosions The most active supporter of the woman who supported him was Sh. M. Ta-ley-ran. Not dis-believing in principle the idea of re-tav-ra-tion, Alexander I considered it un-about-ho-di-my to teach not-about-ra-ti- bridge pl. re-re-men in Europe. In the end, at the con-gress, there is a goiter-la-da-la for petty intrigues and com-bi-na-tions of various kinds. in-te-re-sov, na-vya-zan-naya K. Met-ter-ni-hom. Ideo-lo-gi-che-ski this po-li-ti-ka is-ho-di-la from the principles-tsi-pov le-gi-ti-miz-ma, but in its own practicality. in-carnation you-ra-zha-la ko-ry-st-nye in-te-re-sy basic. ucha-st-ni-kov kon-gres-sa. Met-ter-them strives to provide the Austrian. ge-ge-mo-niu in the developed Germany, uk-re-drink in the zi-tion of Austria in Italy and in Bal-ka-nakh, and so -We won’t allow all of Poland to be included in Russia.
Alexander I, who had a great influence on the course of the congress, advocated the establishment of a new policy. equal weight, which should help to strengthen Russia's influence on the country. He was for-in-te-re-so-van in the continuation of co-operation with Austria and Prussia and in co-creation against them in the face of France, the excessive os-lab-le-ness of which appeared to him not to be allowed -my. Prussia, in a flock of people who took the most severe measures against be-free France, sought to -di-thread to yourself Sak-so-niu and part of the Rhine principalities. Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niya, for-in-te-re-so-van-naya in the sub-country of Europe. equality and in the creation of its state-dominated position on the seas and in the colonies , acted together with Prussia against France, Austria and Russia, not wanting to allow the forces to -nii k.-l. of which to the detriment of Britain. in-te-re-sam. France, striving to ensure the acceptance of V.K. -ri-va-la the greatest danger from the Prussian side and all the si-la-mi pro-ti-vi-vis-satisfied the Prussians. Pri-ty-za-niy to Sak-so-niu and the Rhine region-las-ti. Sh. 3.1.1815 France under-pi-sa-la secret agreement with Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-ni-ey and Av-st-ri-ey about joint st-st-vi-yah at the congress and mutual help in case of danger from other powers. The thief was directed against Prussia and Russia and forced Friedrich Wilhelm III and Aleksandr I to go on us-tup-ki in Saxony and Polish. in-pro-sah.
Ob-st-riv-shi-sya pro-ti-vo-speech between the teaching-st-ni-ka-mi V.K. threatened him with a breakdown, when in On the first of March 1815, it became known about the flight of Na-po-le-o-on I from the island. El-ba and his trip to Paris (see “One Hundred Days”). All disputes were immediately settled. Go-su-dar-st-va - study-st-ni-ki V. k. ob-ra-zo-va-li 7th anti-French coalition against Na-po-le-o-na and vo-zob-no-vili Sho-mon-skiy trak-tat. 9.6.1815, for several. days before the battle at Va-ter-loo, before Russia, France, Prussia, Austria, We-li-ko-bri-ta -nii and Switzerland under-pi-sa-li-key. general act of the V.K., consisting of 121 articles and 17 annexes (until 1820, 35 states joined it ).
This document introduced substantive changes into the territory. device of the Euro-py and sfor-mu-li-ro-val re-zul-ta-you re-de-la Euro-py and co-lo-niy between -du po-be-di-te-la-mi Na-po-le-o-na. He pre-saw France's war, the creation of “bar-e-ditches” along its borders, which We should have become the Netherlands, Switzerland, strengthened by expanding the borders and including -the inclusion of str-te-gi-che-ski important mountain passes, as well as Prussia, which expanded its territory- this is due to the connection of the Rhine provinces. At the same time, France managed to preserve itself in the borders of 1792, determined by the Peace of Paris in 1814, then barking Sa-ar region. and several on the border fortresses in the east. She was charged a cost of 700 million francs, and her territory was under a foreign policy. ok-ku-pa-tion for a period of 3 to 5 years. Russia means a lot. part of Poland with War-sha-voy (Kingdom of Poland), but you-well-de-said-from-the-pri-ty-za-niy on Tar-no-Polish region, us-tu-drinking it from Austria. She also defended Finland and Bessa-ra-bia, which she conquered in 1809 and 1812. Krakow was declared flax as a free city under the protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see Krakow republic) . Austria was re-established in the borders of 1792, but without Austria. Ni-der-lan-dov and lands in the southwest. parts of Germany. Po-mi-mo Tar-no-po-la, Ve-ne-tsiya, Lom-bar-diya, Ti-rol and Dal-ma-tsiya came under her power. At the Parma and Tuscany pre-stools there were the same pre-sto-s-to-the-houses of the Gabs-burgs. She managed to gain a pre-eminent influence in Germany - K. Met-ter-nih do-bil-sha-ge-ge-mo-nii Av-st -riy in the German Union 1815-66, created by the act of June 8, 1815, b. Part of the article entered into the key. act of the Vienna Congress.
Prussia po-lu-chi-la north. part of Sak-so-nii (South Sak-so-nii so-khra-ni-la sa-mo-stability). Po-znan, b. part of Westphalia, Rhine Province, about. Ryu-gen and Swedish Po-me-ra-niya. Sweden is in Nor-we-giu, which was from-de-le-na from Da-nia - formerly. co-union-tsy Na-po-le-o-na I. In Italy, the Sar-din-ko-lion-st-vo, which- then Sa-voya and Nits-tsa returned. Ve-li-ko-bri-ta-niya for-cre-pi-la for yourself b. including for the war-van-nyh territories, incl. Malta, Cape Colony in South. Af-ri-ke and o. Ceylon. Brit. pro-tek-ra-that turned out to be the same Io-no-che-islands, which provided the Great -existing position in the Middle Sea. In Is-pa-nia and Por-tu-ga-lia, the power of the overthrown Na-po-le-o-nom I di-na-sti was restored.
Vienna Dec-la-ra-tion, concluded on March 20, 1815, according to the fate of Switzerland, was included in the general -ral act of V.K. in the form of appendix XI and again in articles 74-84 of the act. She pro-voz-gla-sha-la the “eternal ne-tra-li-tet” of Switzerland, recognizing integrity and non-pri-cosity -venousness 19 kan-to-nov Gel-ve-tich. soyu-za, add-di-nya-la to them 3 more kan-to-na and create-da-va-la on the basis of this ob-e-di-non-niya Shvei- royal con-fe-de-ra-tion. At V. K., a reg-la-ment between-zh-du-nar was adopted. su-do-khod-st-va and collection of taxes along the rivers serving as borders of states or passing through the territory -rii several states (Rhine, Moselle, Maas, Shel-da, etc.). One of the applications to the key. Ak-tu V.K. co-der-zha-lo formal ban on ra-bo-trading. V.K. for the first time established a unified de-le-nie on the “classes” of diplomacy. agents and op-re-de-lil in a row of their senior-shin-st-va when taking up places on the re-gov-thieves and when sub-pi-sa-nii do- go-vo-row (according to al-fa-vi-tu French na-pi-sa-niya of this or that go-su-dar-st-va). Sis-te-ma between-zh-du-nar. from-no-she-ny, created on V. k., was until-half-on-the-key of the Holy Union (September . 1815); -nia, Austria and Prussia (November 1815). V.K. fortified a new co-option of forces in Europe after the crash at the Le-o-nov-skaya imp. -rii. This system-te-ma pro-su-sche-st-vo-va-la to ser. 19th century and the window-cha-tel-but dis-pa-las with the ter-she-ni-em volume of Italy and Germany.
Historical sources:
Mar-tens F. F. Co-b-ra-nie of tracts and conventions concluded between Russia and foreign countries you. St. Petersburg, 1876. T. 3. P. 207-533.
Illustrations:
"Vienna Congress 1814-15". Gras-vu-ra by J. God-froy from a painting by J. B. Isa-be. BRE Archive.
CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1814-15, an international congress that ended the wars of coalitions of European powers with Napoleonic France. He met in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. 216 representatives of all European states (except Turkey) took part in its work, led by the winners of Napoleon I Bonaparte - Russia (Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode, A.K. Razumovsky, G.O. Stackelberg), Great Britain (R. S. Castlereagh, later A. Wellington, C. Stewart and W. Cathcart), Prussia (Frederick Wilhelm III, C. A. von Hardenberg, C. W. von Humboldt) and Austria [Franz I (Franz II), K. Metternich, F. Genz, K. F. Schwarzenberg]. The highest European nobility gathered in Vienna - 2 emperors, 4 kings, 2 crown princes, 3 grand duchesses and 250 sovereign princes. The French delegation led by S. M. Talleyrand was one of the last to arrive in Vienna.
The participants of the congress set themselves the following main tasks: 1) recovery pre-revolutionary orders in Europe, primarily the restoration of overthrown dynasties; 2) territorial redistribution in the interests of the victorious powers; 3) the creation of guarantees against the return to power of Napoleon and the resumption of wars of conquest by France; 4) creation of a system to combat the revolutionary danger, guaranteeing the European monarchy from shocks in the future.
The Congress of Vienna took place in the form of bilateral consultations and negotiations between representatives of individual states, who concluded treaties and agreements among themselves. The delegates gathered together only once - to sign the final document. Numerous balls and other social entertainments were organized for the participants of the Vienna Congress, which gave rise to the Austrian diplomat Prince de Ligne calling it the “dancing congress.”
The four victorious powers that signed the Chaumont Treaty of 1814 tried to reach a preliminary agreement on all the most important issues in order to impose their will on France and the rest of the congress participants. However, the differences that emerged between them regarding the fate of Poland and Saxony allowed S. M. Talleyrand not only to join the leading “four”, turning it into the “five”, and then into the “eight” (due to the inclusion of Spain, Portugal and Sweden in the commission ), but also successfully influence decisions made.
At the congress, three different approaches to resolving the issue of the post-war structure of Europe were revealed. At the initial stage, the idea of legitimism dominated, any political changes that had occurred on the continent since 1789 were rejected, and a demand was put forward to fully restore the “legal order” in Europe, guaranteeing against a new revolutionary explosion. The most active supporter of this approach was S. M. Talleyrand. Without rejecting the idea of restoration in principle, Alexander I considered it necessary to take into account the irreversibility of many changes in Europe. Ultimately, the policy of petty intrigues and combinations of various interests imposed by K. Metternich prevailed at the congress. Ideologically, this policy was based on the principles of legitimism, but in its practical implementation it expressed the selfish interests of the main participants in the congress. Metternich sought to ensure Austrian hegemony in disunited Germany, strengthen Austria's position in Italy and the Balkans, and also prevent the inclusion of all of Poland into Russia.
Alexander I, who provided great influence during the congress, he advocated the establishment of a political balance, which was supposed to help strengthen Russia’s influence on the continent. He was interested in continuing the rivalry between Austria and Prussia and in creating a counterbalance to them in the person of France, whose excessive weakening seemed unacceptable to him. Prussia, which insisted on taking the most severe measures against defeated France, sought to annex Saxony and part of the Rhine principalities. Great Britain, interested in maintaining European balance and in consolidating its dominant position on the seas and in the colonies, acted in concert with Prussia against France, Austria and Russia, not wanting to allow any of them to strengthen to the detriment of British interests. France, which sought to ensure that the Congress of Vienna adopted the most acceptable decisions for itself, saw the greatest danger from Prussia and resisted with all its might the satisfaction of Prussian claims to Saxony and the Rhineland. S. M. Talleyrand was in agreement with K. Metternich on the issue of Russia’s absorption of Poland. 3.1.1815 France signed a secret agreement with Great Britain and Austria o joint actions at the congress and mutual assistance in case of danger from other powers. The treaty was directed against Prussia and Russia and forced Frederick William III and Alexander I to make concessions on Saxon and Polish issues.
The escalating contradictions between the participants in the Congress of Vienna threatened to disrupt it when, in early March 1815, it became known about the flight of Napoleon I from the island of Elba and his march on Paris (see “One Hundred Days”). All disputes were immediately abandoned. The states participating in the Congress of Vienna formed the 7th anti-French coalition against Napoleon and renewed the Treaty of Chaumont. 9.6.1815, a few days before the Battle of Waterloo, representatives of Russia, France, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain and Switzerland signed the final general act Congress of Vienna, which consisted of 121 articles and 17 annexes (until 1820, 35 states joined it).
This document made significant changes to the territorial and political structure of Europe and formulated the results of the redistribution of Europe and the colonies between Napoleon's victors. It provided for the deprivation of France’s conquests, the creation of “barriers” along its borders, which were to become the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzerland, strengthened by expanding its borders and including strategically important mountain passes, as well as Prussia, which expanded its territory by annexing the Rhine provinces . At the same time, France managed to maintain itself within the borders of 1792, determined by the Peace of Paris in 1814, having lost the Saar region and several border fortresses in the east. It was charged an indemnity of 700 million francs, and its territory was subject to foreign occupation for a period of 3 to 5 years. Russia received a significant part of Poland with Warsaw (Kingdom of Poland), but was forced to renounce its claims to the Tarnopol district, losing it to Austria. She also secured Finland and Bessarabia, which she conquered in 1809 and 1812. Krakow was declared a free city under the patronage of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see Republic of Krakow). Austria was restored to its 1792 borders, but without the Austrian Netherlands and the lands in southwestern Germany. In addition to Tarnopol, under it power Venice, Lombardy, Tyrol and Dalmatia were transferred. Representatives of the House of Habsburg were seated on the Parma and Tuscan thrones. She managed to gain predominant influence in Germany - K. Metternich achieved the hegemony of Austria in the German Confederation of 1815-66, created by an act of June 8, 1815, most of the articles of which were included in final act Congress of Vienna.
Prussia received the northern part of Saxony (South Saxony retained its independence). As compensation, Posen, most of Westphalia, the Rhine Province, the island of Rügen and Swedish Pomerania were ceded to Prussia. Sweden received Norway, which was separated from Denmark, a former ally of Napoleon I. In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, to which Savoy and Nice were returned. Britain secured most of the conquered territories, including the island of Malta, the Cape Colony in South Africa and the island of Ceylon. The Ionian Islands also came under British protectorate, which provided Great Britain with a dominant position in the Mediterranean. In Spain and Portugal, the power of the dynasties overthrown by Napoleon I was restored.
The Vienna Declaration, concluded on March 20, 1815, concerning the fate of Switzerland, was included in the general act of the Congress of Vienna in the form of Appendix XI and repeated in articles 74-84 of the act. It proclaimed the “eternal neutrality” of Switzerland, recognized the integrity and inviolability of the 19 cantons of the Helvetic Union, annexed 3 more cantons to them and created the Swiss Confederation on the basis of this association. At the Congress of Vienna, regulations were adopted for international navigation and the collection of duties on rivers that serve as borders of states or passing through the territory of several states (Rhine, Moselle, Meuse, Scheldt, etc.).
One of the annexes to the final act of the Congress of Vienna contained a formal ban on the slave trade. The Congress of Vienna first established unified division into “classes” of diplomatic agents and determined the order of their seniority when taking seats at negotiations and when signing treaties (according to the alphabet of the French spelling of a particular state). The system of international relations created at the Congress of Vienna was supplemented by the conclusion of the Holy Alliance (September 1815), the terms of the Peace of Paris of 1815 and the renewal of the alliance of Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia (November 1815). The Congress of Vienna consolidated a new balance of power in Europe after the collapse of the Napoleonic empire. This system lasted until the mid-19th century and finally collapsed with the completion of the unification of Italy and Germany.
Publ.: Martens F. F. Collection of treatises and conventions concluded by Russia with foreign powers. St. Petersburg, 1876. T. 3. P. 207-533.
Lit.: Zak L.A. Monarchs against peoples. M., 1966; Foreign policy Russia XIX and the beginning of the twentieth century. M., 1972. Ser. 1. T. 8; Alsop S.M. The Congress dances. N.Y., 1984; Kuznetsova G. A. Congress of Vienna // History foreign policy Russia. 1st half of the 19th century M., 1995.
