Eastern Han. The struggle for power of the first emperor of the Eastern Han Guang Wu-di Domestic politics of Guang Wu-di

GUAN WUDI

(personal name - Liu Xiu) (5 BC - 57 AD) - whale. Emperor since 25, founder of the Later Han Dynasty (25-220). Being a representative of a side branch of the Liu clan, to whom the emperors of the Early (or Western) Han dynasty belonged, G. Wu-d. During the period of crisis of the empire and the unpopular reign of Wang Mang (9-23), he managed to advance and become one of the major military leaders. Having gained the upper hand over his rivals after the death of Wang Mang, G. Wu-d. proclaimed himself emperor and moved the capital from Chang'an to the east, to Luoyang (hence the other name of the dynasty he founded - Eastern Han). Having become emperor, G. U-d. brutally suppressed the powerful people in 27. the uprising of the “red brows” and at the same time took a number of measures to overcome the consequences of the crisis: he issued decrees to reduce taxes, limit slavery, and provide state services to the poor and landless. land, exemption of immigrants from taxes for a number of years, etc. Having restored the destroyed economy of the country, G. achieved this means. successes in the fight against the decentralizing tendencies of the aristocracy and strengthened his power. Having re-conquered the north. part of Vietnam (Bac Bo), which recognized dependence on China, G. U-d. marked the beginning of active external politics East Han Empire.

L. S. Vasiliev. Moscow.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ed. E. M. Zhukova. 1973-1982 .

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Liu Xiu, known in history as Emperor Guang Wu Ti (25 - 57), proclaimed an era of peace and announced that he would act according to the example of his ancestor Liu Bang. He understood that in the context of uprisings and economic devastation blazing throughout the country, it was impossible to act only by force.

While decisively and brutally dealing with popular movements, Liu Xiu at the same time issued decrees that somewhat alleviated the situation of the population - both free and slaves. During the uprisings of 18 - 28. many slaves were freed by the rebels or fled on their own.

After the suppression of the popular movement, Guan Wu-di not only made no attempts to return the slaves to their previous owners, but also repeatedly issued decrees to limit slavery and alleviate the situation of slaves. A number of decrees dated 26-37. People who were sold into slavery due to famine during the civil wars, as well as people who were forcibly enslaved at that time, were declared free. The “law on the sale of people” issued by Guang Wu Ti was an attempt to limit the practice of forcibly capturing and selling into slavery the free. B 31 r. a decree was issued to free certain categories of state slaves. It read: “Those officials and people from the people who in the time of Wang Mang were captured and enslaved for disagreeing with the previous laws should be released and become free.” B 36 - 39 Guan Wu-di issued several decrees freeing certain categories of private slaves in a number of areas of the empire. B 36 AD e.

A decree was issued limiting the right of slave owners to kill slaves. A year earlier, an imperial decree prohibited the branding of private slaves.

During the reign of Guan Wu-di, the economic importance of the areas in the basin p. Weihe, which was the main breadbasket of the state in the 2nd - mid-1st centuries.

BC e., falls significantly due to the neglect and destruction of the Weibei irrigation system and gives way to areas located east of Changan - in the territory of the modern provinces of Henan, Shandong and Southern Hebei. In these areas, back in the second half of the 1st century. BC e. local authorities created irrigation facilities that contributed to their economic recovery. At the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. areas located on the territory of the Great Chinese Plain became the most developed economically. Due to the increased economic

Battle on the bridge.

Han stone relief from a mortuary temple in Wu and Shandong Province. Mid-2nd century n. O.

Due to the central importance of these areas and the decline of the areas in the Weihe Valley, Guan Wu moved the capital of the empire to the east, to the city of Luoyang. Both Guang Wu Ti and his successors paid great attention to supporting irrigation structures in the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River.

Under Guang Wu-ti, the government took vigorous measures to improve the country's economy. Officials were given orders to encourage agriculture and sericulture. The poor who did not have land were given state lands (gun-tian) on preferential terms. The settlers were exempt from taxes and duties for several years.

Large holdings of disgraced landowners were partially distributed among people who lost their homes. The state administration was restored and established. The fight against the decentralizing tendencies of large aristocratic families, which intensified during the uprising and civil strife, led to success. Guan Wu-di managed to achieve the strengthening and former centralization of the empire.

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Uprisings at the end of the 1st century. BC BC - beginning of the 1st century n. e. were an indicator of the extreme aggravation of class contradictions in the Han Empire and the maturation of a deep internal crisis.

The activities of Liu Xiu and the policies of the subsequent emperors of the new dynasty, called the Younger Han Dynasty, were ultimately determined by the profound changes that took place in the socio-economic basis of the empire.

Guang Wu Di's Domestic Policy

Immediately after his confirmation on the imperial throne, Liu Xiu, known in history as Guan Wu-ti (25-57), proclaimed an era of peace and announced that he would act according to the example of his ancestor Liu Bang. He understood that in the context of uprisings and economic devastation blazing throughout the country, it was impossible to act only by force. While decisively and cruelly dealing with popular movements, Liu Xiu at the same time issued decrees that somewhat alleviated the situation of the oppressed masses. During the uprisings of 18-28. many slaves were freed by rebel groups or fled from their masters. After the suppression of the popular movement, Guan Wu-di not only made no attempts to return the slaves to their previous owners, but also repeatedly issued decrees to limit slavery and alleviate the situation of slaves. A number of decrees of 26-37. People who were sold into slavery due to famine during the civil wars, as well as people who were forcibly enslaved at that time, were declared free. The “law on the sale of people” issued by Guang Wu Ti was an attempt to limit the practice of forcibly capturing and selling into slavery the free. In 31, a decree was issued to free certain categories of state slaves. It read: “Those officials and people of the people who in the time of Wang Mang were captured and enslaved for disagreeing with the previous laws should be released and become free.” In 36-39. Guan Wu-di issued several decrees freeing certain categories of private slaves in a number of areas of the empire. In 36 A.D. A decree was issued limiting the right of slave owners to kill slaves. A year earlier, an imperial decree prohibited the branding of private slaves.

By the time of Guan Wu-di's reign, the economic importance of the areas in the river basin. Weihe, which was the main breadbasket of the state in the 2nd century - mid-1st century. BC, falls significantly due to the neglect and destruction of the Weibei irrigation system and gives way to areas located east of Changan - in the territory of the modern provinces of Henan, Shandong and Southern Hebei. In these areas, back in the second half of the 1st century. BC e. local authorities created irrigation structures that contributed to their economic growth. At the beginning of the 1st century. p.e. areas located on the territory of the Great Chinese Plain became the most developed economically. Due to the increased economic importance of these areas and the decline of the areas in the Weihe Valley, Guang Wu moved the capital of the empire to the east, to the city of Luoyang. Both Guang Wu Ti and his successors paid great attention to supporting irrigation structures in the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River.

Under Guang Wu-ti, the government took vigorous measures to improve the country's economy. Officials were given orders to encourage agriculture and sericulture. The poor who did not have land were given state lands (gun-tian) on preferential terms. The settlers were exempt from taxes and duties for several years. Large holdings of disgraced landowners were partially distributed among people who lost their homes. The state administration was restored and established. In many years of intense struggle against the decentralization tendencies of large aristocratic families, which intensified during uprisings and civil strife, Guan Wu-di managed to achieve the strengthening and centralization of the empire. Restoration of the foreign policy power of the Han Empire

In the 1st century n. e. The Han Empire once again became a strong power. From the middle of the 1st century. n. e. The Han emperors again began to pursue an active policy of conquest.

In the late 30s and early 40s, uprisings against the Chinese authorities began in the southwest of the Han Empire, in the northern part of Vietnam. The rebels killed Han officials, and for several years the area maintained independence from the Han Empire. In 43, Chinese troops were sent here, led by the military leader Ma Yuan, who inflicted a decisive defeat on the rebels, after which the northern part of Vietnam (Bac Bo) recognized its dependence on the Han Empire.

Soon the Chinese took active military action in the northwest. As already indicated, the Huns at the end of the 1st century. BC BC - early 1st century n. e. subjugated the Western Territory to their influence and interrupted trade along the “Great Silk Road”. In 73, a strong army led by commander Dou Gu set out on a long campaign against the Huns. The wars with the Huns were primarily aimed at restoring Chinese influence in the Western Territory and establishing Chinese foreign trade with Western countries along the “Great Silk Road.” As a result of the victorious campaigns of the Han commanders, among whom Ban Chao (32-102) especially distinguished himself, the Huns were driven out of East Turkestan, and the states of the Western Territory again recognized the power of the Han emperor. Closed to China for 65 years, the “Great Silk Road” was re-conquered by the Han Empire. As a result of the wars in the southwest and especially with the Huns, a large number of slave prisoners of war flowed into China. According to the “History of the Younger Han Dynasty”, in only one campaign in 89. 200 thousand Huns were captured.

The successful struggle of the Chinese for East Turkestan and their advance to the west led to a clash of interests between the Han Empire and its closest neighbor to the west, the Kushan Empire. In 90 AD e. In the battle with the troops of Ban Chao, the Kushan army sent to East Turkestan suffered a complete defeat, after which Ban Chao forced the Kushana king Kanishka to recognize nominal dependence on the Han Empire. “From that time,” reports the “History of the Younger Han Dynasty,” “the Yuezhi (Kushans - Ed.) were in great fear and annually sent tribute and gifts.”

As a reward for his brilliant victories, the emperor granted Ban Chao the title of governor of all the territories of the Western Region he conquered. Ban Chao's activities were not limited to successful campaigns of conquest. Having been constantly in the Western Region for more than 25 years, he became famous not only as a brilliant commander, but also as a talented diplomat. Ban Chao sent his emissaries far to the west to establish trade and diplomatic relations with various countries. One of them with his companions reached the shores of the Persian Gulf.

International trade

At the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. The Han Empire established extensive connections with the outside world. The subjugation of North Vietnam, through which the trade route to India passed, opened up the possibility for China to establish more regular ties with Western countries along the southern route. There was also a sea route leading to India and further west, all the way to the Roman Empire. Trade ties between China and the Roman Empire along the southern route began in the last decades BC. e. Under 166, Chinese sources report the arrival of the first embassy from Rome in Luoyang. Lively trade was carried out along the “Great Silk Road”, as in the 1st century. BC e., trade and cultural ties between China and Central Asia were especially developed. Chinese traders brought silk, ceramics, iron and lacquer products to the west. Chinese goods entered the Roman Empire through Bactria and Parthia. Foreign merchants brought mules, horses, camels, woolen items, carpets, leather, glass, precious stones and artistic products, grapes, pomegranates, saffron, and alfalfa to China.

The slave trade occupied a significant place in the foreign trade of the Younger Han Empire. In the biography of one of the assistant governors of the Western Territory, placed in the History of the Younger Hen Dynasty, there are indications that at that time slaves were brought to China from the west. Slaves were also purchased from the border northeastern tribes. Thus, according to the same source , traders with slaves and other goods from the Wuhuan tribes repeatedly arrived in Luoyang. There is information about the import of slaves from Japan at this time.

Changes in the economic system of China in the 1st-2nd centuries.

The first decades of the reign of the Younger Han Dynasty were marked not only by the restoration of the foreign policy power of the empire, but also by some improvement in the country's economy. The most important irrigation structures on the Yellow River were restored. Craft production and trade revived. However, since the main socio-economic contradictions were not resolved, the Han Empire, after a short-term upsurge, entered a period of protracted internal crisis. Deep changes were imminent in the entire social structure of ancient China.

After those shifts in the development of productive forces that occurred during the Zhangguo period (V-III centuries) and were the basis for the further development of slave relations, over the following centuries there was no noticeable progress in the development of production tools and farming and craft techniques. Those improvements that appeared in China from the 1st century. BC e., have not received any significant distribution. Judging by archaeological materials and written sources, very primitive tools were in wide use. For grinding grain, for example, hand mills such as grain graters were widely used. Neither the plow nor plowing with oxen, even in Northern China, was truly widespread and widespread. The general level of development of productive forces during this period can be evidenced by the fact that before the beginning of our era, along with iron weapons, bronze weapons were still in use. So, for example, under Wu-di, as sources report, there were large state weapons workshops where weapons were made from bronze. Archaeological finds also testify to the fairly widespread use of bronze weapons during the Elder Han Dynasty.

From I - II centuries. In China, significant shifts in the development of productive forces are again emerging. Plow farming and plowing with oxen are becoming more widespread, especially in the southeast - in the Yangtze River basin. If in the sources of the 1st century. BC e. We find only a brief mention of the introduction of bed culture and a system of variable fields, then from the middle of the 1st century. n. e. evidence of their distribution and development appears. A number of improvements were made in the field of iron production. In particular, at this time a method was invented for driving blowing forge bellows using a water wheel with a vertical shaft. Following this, the power of water began to be used to grind grain - a primitive water mill appeared. At the end of the Younger Han Dynasty, a water-lifting machine was invented - a pump that raises water to the surface of the earth, which played a big role in irrigating fields. In the 3rd century. n. e. the loom was improved.

Although the improved production tools noted above began to come into use during this period, they became noticeably widespread only starting from the 3rd-4th centuries. n. e. However, the very fact of their appearance and gradual introduction into crafts and agriculture testified to profound changes in the economy and social relations and had far-reaching consequences.

In the Empire of the Younger Han, slave labor continued to be widely used, but slavery as a whole was already becoming obsolete.

The demand for slaves was still quite high. Sources dating back to the 1st-2nd centuries provide information about slave owners who owned a thousand or even more slaves, and about the existence of large slave-holding farms at that time. In the History of the Younger Han Dynasty, the biography of Fan Zhong describes the slave-owning economy of one of the aristocratic families. This family acquired more than 300 qing (1383.9 hectares) of uncultivated land, on which they carried out irrigation works. Extensive farming was the main source of enrichment for Fan Zhong's family, but in addition it owned fisheries, pastures and plantations where camphor and lacquer trees were grown. Having a large number of slaves (tong-li), this family used them all in its household, as a result of which its wealth, according to the History of the Younger Han Dynasty, doubled every year.

However, the improvement of production tools and progress in agricultural and craft technology made the use of slave labor in the main sectors of the economy less and less profitable. It is significant that even in the treatise of 81 BC. e. "Yan Te Lun" complaints about the unproductivity of slave labor appear; it notes that slaves in state workshops produce extremely poor agricultural tools, since “they are in a depressed state and do not fully use their strength.”

The development of a culture of field farming in ancient China, based at that time, as a rule, on artificial irrigation, required very intense and careful work. This in itself should have limited to a certain extent the possibility of using slave labor in this branch of agriculture. The higher the technology of agriculture rose, the more obvious the advantages of free labor over slave labor became.

Along with slave-holding farms such as Fan Zhong’s, complex farms of the largest land owners developed at this time, where the labor of tenants and dependent farmers was used on an ever-increasing scale.

The process of concentration of private land ownership, which caused serious concern among contemporaries at the end of the 1st century. BC e., has now assumed enormous proportions. The amount of land owned by individual landowners amounted to many hundreds of qings. According to sources, their lands stretched “from region to region.” Although they did not hold official positions, their influence and power were greater than that of many major officials.

These largest farms of land magnates, which appeared at the end of the Elder Han Dynasty, became extremely widespread during the Younger Han Dynasty. They were called "strong houses". The "strong houses" owned thousands of slaves. Many of them had craft workshops based on slave labor. They conducted extensive trade, including the slave trade, and were engaged in usury. “Their fertile fields,” it is reported in the “History of the Younger Han Dynasty,” occupy the entire earth, they count slaves and slaves (nu-bei) in thousands of crowds... Their boats, carts and traders travel throughout the country... Gor and the valleys are not enough for their herds of horses, for herds of cows, rams and pigs.” It was not possible to conduct agricultural farming on the vast lands of these magnates with the help of slaves, if only because on such vast estates it was difficult to carry out the necessary supervision over the labor of slaves, without which it would not be more or less productive.

The farms of the “strong houses” were farms of a new type. Although slave labor continued to be used in them, it was used primarily in crafts, while in the field of agriculture the bulk of the producers of these estates were various categories of dependent farmers.

At this time, various forms of dependence of communal farmers are increasingly ripening. At the end of the 1st century. BC e. Bonded tenancy became widespread. Sources report, for example, that the official Ning Cheng, having received his resignation, returned to Nanyang, where he rented out more than 1,000 qing (about 4,613 hectares) of land, forcing thousands of poor families - apparently his debtors - to work in his fields. By 9 AD e. refers to the decree of Wang Man, reporting that strong and rich people seize the fields of the poor, forced to cultivate the lands of the rich for half the harvest. Paying half of the product was the easiest condition. There are certificates of payment of six, seven and eight tenths of the harvest.

At the same time, in the I-II centuries. New forms of dependence have also developed. Large owners began to use the labor of the so-called ke, or bing-ke, bu-qu and other workers on their farms on a significant scale. Ke, or bin-ke, literally meant “guest”, “host”. Large owners had hundreds of ke living with them. Among them were educated people, whose advice the owners listened to, and numerous servants who served in the house, entertained the owners and carried out various assignments. Information about these “guests” is available in sources dating back to the 3rd century. BC e. In the II-I centuries. in a number of cases, the sources contain the expressions nu-ke, tun-ke, where ke are equated to slaves. However, from the 2nd century. n. e. The concepts of ke and bin-ke are clearly being given new content. Ke and bing-ke now mean dependent farmers planted on the land. In the same way, large landowners began to plant bu-qu - personal guards, among whom were slaves. These categories of producers were not free, but at the same time their position differed from that of slaves. It is known that ke and bu-qu could be inherited and given, but unlike slaves, they could not be sold. At the same time, in sources of even later times there is information about decrees freeing ke and slaves, as if they were in the same position.

Later, small and medium-sized free producers, facing the threat of complete ruin, began to move to the position of dependent farmers - ke, i-gii-ke (ke, receiving clothes and food) and dyan-ke (ke, cultivating or renting the land).

As new forms of exploitation developed, the position of slaves gradually changed. In the II century. Some measures are being taken to soften the living conditions of the slave. First of all, these include the legislative acts of Guan Wu-di, prohibiting the killing and branding of private slaves.

Historians - supporters of the existence of the slave system during this period - believe that these acts of Guan Wu-di, along with such phenomena as the spread of sharecropping, bonded tenancy and other forms of dependence, the emergence of complaints about the unproductivity of slave labor and symptoms of further naturalization of the economy, were one from signs of the decomposition of slave-owning relations and the brewing crisis of the slave-owning system. As an analogy, they draw attention to the slave laws of the Roman emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century. n. e., which took place during the period of the beginning decomposition of the Roman slave society. However, a number of researchers who believe that during the reign of both Han dynasties there was a feudal society in China, consider the laws of Guang Wu-di on slaves as evidence of the final destruction of slavery, which, in their opinion, from that time even as a way of life ceased to play any role significant role.

in 23-29 AD

The initial period of the existence of the Eastern (Later) Han Empire is characterized by the struggle for the achievement and retention of supreme power by the first emperor Guang-wu-di (25-57). The struggle for the throne, for maintaining and strengthening power took the period from 23 to 29. AD, it was complex and lengthy. Below we have tried to give a more detailed description of the events of 26 and the very beginning of 27 - the first years of the full reign of the first emperor of the Eastern Han.

It should be said that the history of the Eastern Han empire, in contrast to the earlier Western Han, has not yet been sufficiently studied in European and Russian historiography. The only monograph in Russian dedicated to the state of the Eastern Han is the monograph by V.V. Malya-vina "Empire of Scientists". Only part of the second chapter is devoted to political history, and the administrative apparatus of the empire is described in most detail. The social sphere of life in Chinese society at that time is described in comparative detail in a collective monograph Kryukova M.V., Perelomova L.S., Sofronova M.V., Cheboksarova N.I. " Ancient Chinese V era centralized empires". Until now, one of the most informative works on this topic is the section on the Eastern Han in a collective monograph written by G. Bilenstein. The main source on the history of this period in Chinese history is Hou Han shu("History of the Later Han [Empire]"), the third of twenty-four official normative histories ( zheng shi), which was compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century. AD with the involvement of a large number of earlier works.

First chapter Hou Han shu includes an undated preamble and a record of events by year, a total of seven years' events are described in this chapter: from 23 AD. to 29 AD From the point of view of structure, the text can be divided into two large parts: from 23 to the sixth month of 25, inclusive, it represents a chronicle-artistic description, and after the seventh month of 25, the nature of the messages changes and the text takes on the character of an official chronicle.

In a kind of preamble to the first chapter Hou Han shu some information is provided about the future emperor Guan-wu-di (Liu Xiu) and his life is reported until 23 AD. It is indicated that he is a descendant of Jing-di (156-141 BC), an outstanding emperor of the Western Han state, but with each generation the nobility of Guang-wu-di’s ancestors decreased: if his great-great-great-great-grandfather was an emperor , then great-great-great-grandfather - Van, great-great-grandfather - howe, great-grandfather - district governor, grandfather - district commander, father - district commander. According to G. Bilenstein, the date of birth of Guan-u is 5 BC. e. .

Describing the appearance of the future emperor, the author of the chronicle notes his main physiognomic features: he had a “solar horn” on his forehead, that is, a bone growth, which was considered a sign of a predisposition to power. It is further said that the future Guan-wu was left an orphan at the age of nine and was raised by his uncle, who was his father’s younger brother. This uncle, in turn, had a son, Liu Yi, nicknamed Boshen. According to Hou Han shu(Chapter 1A), namely Liu Yi at the turn of 22 and 23. became the initiator of the anti-Vanman uprising in the city of Van, it was he who made acquaintances, on his initiative weapons were purchased and a detachment of soldiers was assembled.

In the period from 23 to 29. AD events developed like this:

1. At the first stage(22? - sixth month of 23) Guan-wu-di acted under the command of his cousin Liu I. During this period, representatives of the large nobility of the Nanyang district, where he was from, assembled an army capable of resisting Wang Mang’s army, and, placing it over with Gen-shi-di, who they elevated to the imperial throne, captured this district. The end of this period was marked by the first conflict in their camp between Liu Yi and Gen-shi-di. Guan-wu, having left his relative (brother or cousin), went over to the side of the new emperor, receiving for this the rank of commander and title howe. These events indicate the fragility of the rebel coalition.

2. Second stage the struggle for power continues from the sixth month of 23 to the autumn of 24. During this period, Guan-wu fights in the army of Gen-shi-di. The rebels' next success during this period was the capture of the capital Chang'an and the assassination of Wang Mang. But this success entailed a new conflict in their camp: one of the generals of Gen-shi-di, Wang Lan, declared himself emperor. Guan-wu again supported Geng-shi-di, not without hesitation. The city of Handan, the capital of Wang Lan, was taken in the fourth month of 24. For the capture of the capital, Guan-wu received the title vana, the highest title after imperial. And in the fall of 24, Guan-wu attacked Gen-shi-di himself. That is, having received from the new emperor everything that he could give him: the highest title and a battle-tested army, Guan-wu betrayed his patron. The coalition supporting Gen-shi-di was unstable; the military actions it waged strengthened some of its members who were not personally loyal to the new emperor and broke away from him. While there was a threat from Wang Mang, these conflicts could be extinguished, but as soon as Wang Mang was defeated, a new split occurred, which led to new hostilities, that is, something like a chain reaction occurred. In the end, Guan-wu, taught by the experience of his predecessors, did not wait for them to go to war against him and, at a convenient moment for himself, struck first.

3. Third stage The struggle for power of Guan-wu begins in the fall of 24 and lasts until the first month of 25. During this time, Guan-wu subjugated three “gangs” - armed formations of the local nobility, providing himself with vast lands.

4. Within fourth stage struggle for power (second month of 25 - twelfth month of 25) Guan-wu himself becomes emperor after his army occupied the capital of Gen-shi-di, the city of Luoyang, and removed him from the throne. It is worth noting that during this period there was a sharp increase in the number of emperors; Liu Pengzi (with the support of the Red Brows armed forces), Liu Yong and Gongsun Shu announced their claims to the throne.

5. During fifth stage struggle for power (from the first to the sixth month of 26) Guan-u-di there is a regrouping of forces associated with the death of Geng-shi-di: the generals of Geng-shi-di went over to the side like Guan-u-di , as well as other contenders calling themselves emperors. During this period, Guangu-di bestowed titles on his relatives, introduced the empress to his subjects, and announced the name of the heir, which significantly strengthened his position.

6. Within sixth stage During the struggle for power (the sixth month of 26 - the second month of 27), a victory was achieved over the “Red Brows”, one of the largest military formations of that time, whose leadership captured the former capital of the Western Han - Chang'an. After this, Guan-wu-di had the state seal in his hands, which significantly increased his legitimacy as an emperor. But the struggle continued, and the fact that Guan-wu-di had the imperial seal did not yet make him a generally recognized and sovereign monarch.

Let's talk in more detail about the events of 26 (see. Application). In the first half of 26 AD. There was a redistribution of forces caused by the death of Emperor Gen-shi-di (23-25 ​​AD). His commanders were forced to look for a new ruler, and in the first month of 26, the influential military leaders Deng Yi and Yu Kuan went over to the side of Guan-wu-di, who became emperor. Some noble courtiers, such as Liu Xi, whom Geng Shi Di granted the title of Yuanshi Wang, also went over to the side of Guang Wu Di (at the same time, Liu Xi received another title of Sishui Wang). Former supporters of Gen-shi-di could be subdued by force. So in the third month of 26, Yin Qun, whom Geng-shi-di bestowed with the title of Yan-wan, was attacked by one of the generals of Guang-wu-di and was brought into submission by him.

This period is characterized not only by the arrival of generals to Guan-u-di, but also by attempts at revolts against him by some of his supporters; the rebellions were quickly suppressed by Guan-wu-di and his supporters. At the same time, Guan-wu-di was not yet the only ruler; besides him, there were several more “emperors” who were enthroned by various armed formations and conducting military operations against their rivals. Guan-wu-di's troops besieged the army of "Emperor" Liu Yong in Suiyang. It is known that Liu Yong was supported by the former commander Geng-shi-di Su Mao, which indicates his strength and the fact that not all the commanders of Geng-shi-di supported Guang-wu-di.

Guan-wu-di conducted military operations both with the “emperors” and with the “gangs” - various armed formations that arose during the fight against the troops of Wang Mang. So, in the first month of 26, the commander Wu Han subdued the Tanxiang gang.

In the first month of 26, Guan-wu-di built the Gaomyao Temple and, according to the source, this important act of the emperor was accompanied by signs. In the same month, the “Red Brows” burned the palace buildings in Chang’an and excavated the imperial burial mound, which gave rise to Deng Yu, the commander of Guang-wu-di, to enter Chang’an and take possession of the tablets of the ancestors of Guang-wu-di, which Upon his return, Deng Yu placed him in Gaomiao.

However, Liu Pengzi, a relative of the rulers of the Western Han, still claimed the role of emperor. Since he is constantly mentioned precisely as a protege of the “Red Brow Gang,” this allows us to conclude that he was deliberately discredited on the pages Hou Han shu.

It was during this period that Guan-u-di strengthened the position of members of his clan - he granted titles not only to generals, but also to his relatives. The title of van was given to the uncle who raised Guan-u-di, as well as two nephews, the sons of his elder brother. Guan-u-di also introduces the empress to his subjects and announces the heir to the throne. Moreover, this heir was not his eldest son, but the eldest son receives the title of van. In the first half of 26 AD. Guan-u-di fortified himself in Luoyang. Some commanders of Gen-shi-di went over to him, and he even subjugated one of them by force.

In the eighth month of 26 AD. Guan-u-di himself led a campaign against the Wuxiao “gang” (“Five Military Camps”) and defeated it. Thus, by the end of 26, five large armed formations (“gangs”) were defeated and dispersed: Tongma, Gaohu and Zhongliang he subjugated in the fall of 24, while still Xiao-wang, the Tanxiang “gang” was subordinated by the commander Guan- Wu-di Wu Hanem in the first month of 26 and, finally, the Wuxiao “gang” was subdued by Guan-wu-di himself in the eighth month of 26.

In the same month, the struggle with another “emperor” from the Liu clan, Liu Yong, continues. Sent on a campaign against Liu Yong in the third month of the same year 26, the commander Guan-wu-di Ge Yan captured Suiyang, thereby forcing Liu Yong to flee to Qiao. Thus, in 26, Guan-wu-di already had enough troops to carry out two military operations simultaneously. It is also worth noting that at that time the fight against “gangs” for Guan-wu-di was a more pressing problem than the fight against Liu Yong, which did not require the personal participation of Guan-wu-di.

In the eleventh month, an alliance of three “gangs”: Tongma, Qingdu and Yulai brought Sun Deng to the throne. However, this “emperor” was killed by his own commander in the same month. It is worth noting that one of these "gangs", Tunma, had already been conquered by Guan-u-di. Apparently, the leaders of this “gang” decided that Guan-u-di, who had settled in Luoyang, was no longer interested in them. However, after the murder of their chosen “emperor”, this “gang” had to submit again. “Gang” Qingdu’s participation in these events cost two districts. It is worth recalling that in 24, the Qingdu “gang” entered into an alliance with the “Red Brows,” thus, the weakening of this “gang” was the weakening of the “Red Brows” allies.

It is also worth noting here that one of the tasks facing the author Hou Han shu, there was an exaltation of Guan-wu-di. He, for example, from the moment of his accession to the throne is presented as the only legitimate emperor, confirming this by the mention of his imperial title. At the same time, all the other “emperors”, after the message that they became the Sons of Heaven, are called only by name, i.e. the ambiguity of the situation with the supreme power is hushed up in every possible way.

However, along with Guan-u-di in the period from 25 to 27 AD. n. e., as was shown, there was a more legitimate emperor - Liu Pengzi, who in 25 occupied Chang'an, the capital of the Western Han state, and it was he who had the state seal during this period. But the source hardly mentions him, because he was enthroned by the “Red Brows.” This suggests that the increased attention to the “Red Brows” in the source may be due to the author’s desire Hou Han shu to show that Liu Pengzi is not an independent figure, he is a protege of some “bandits,” thereby diminishing his status as a political figure. This allows us to conclude that the “Red Brows” in the source are a tool to discredit Liu Pengzi as an emperor, they are brought to the forefront of the narrative to divert attention from the personality of Liu Pengzi.

7. And finally, during seventh stage The struggle for power (second month of 27 - end of 29) ends with the struggle between Guan-wu-di and another “emperor” from the Liu clan, Liu Yong, and his son Liu Yu. After the capture of Liu Yu at the end of 29, Guan-wu-di remained the only emperor from the Liu clan. By the end of 29, besides him, there were three more “emperors”: Gongsun Shu, Li Xian and Lu Fang, who were brought into submission in subsequent years.

Let us present our translation of a fragment of the monument, which describes the events of 26 - early 27.

Application

Fan E. Hou Han shu(History of the Later Han [Empire])

[A] Day Chia Tzu. A solar eclipse has occurred. Dasyma Wu Han, at the head of nine generals, attacked the Tanxiang gang [in a place] east of Ye, inflicted a crushing defeat on it and forced it to surrender.

Day geng-chen. Granted the title to all distinguished subjects lehou; in all four counties of large ownership ( dago) everyone else received [remuneration] depending on their position. The decree read: “It is necessary to know the limits in human feelings; if you leave things to themselves, then desires quickly overwhelm [people] and the fear of punishment is forgotten. All the commanders, having spread their deeds far, achieved great merits. But, in fact, their desires are limitless, and yet they should [feel themselves floating] over a deep abyss, walking on thin ice - trembling and trembling, being extremely cautious. [Some of them] are still not rewarded for their significant achievements. Those whose names have not yet been included in the [award] lists will be quickly included [by officials] dahonglu. I intend to reward them according to their positions.”

Boshi Ding Gong during the discussion said: “Since ancient times, sovereigns, endowing land to hereditary rulers ( zhuhou), did not exceed [the norm] of one hundred whether, therefore it was beneficial to establish [new] howe. They took an example from the strong trunk and weak branches, and thanks to this they controlled them. Now if you give possessions to everyone zhuhou four counties, then it will not comply with the system of laws.”

The emperor said: “In ancient times, all the lost kingdoms became so insofar as they lost the righteous path. I have never heard that among the lost [kingdoms] there were those in which honored subjects had many lands.”

Then they sent [an official] jeje謁者 (master of ceremonies) immediately provide [them] with a cord for the official seal. The order read: “Having occupied a significant position, do not act bossy; Having risen high, do not threaten danger; observe the measure, strictly adhere to the norms; limit yourself and avoid excesses; remain respectful, be discreet. Pass on [the lands] to your descendants, their expansion will serve as protection for the Han.”

[b] Day ren-wu . Geng-shi[-di] left the Han commander Deng Yi 鄧曄, [as well as] the assistant to the Han commander Yu Kuan 于匡. They gave up. Each retained their title [ howe?].

[c] Day renzi . They erected the Gaomiao [temple] and built an altar for the spirits of the earth and grains in Luoyang. Altars were established in the outskirts south of the city wall. We began to revere the element of fire and the color red.

[d] Same month. The "Red Brows" burned the palace buildings of the Western capital (Chang'an), excavated the burial mounds of the [Western Han] emperors, invaded the Inner Outpost and plundered [it].

Dasytu Deng Yu 鄧禹 entered Chang'an. Directed officials to erect the spirit tablets of the eleven emperors, returning them to Gaomiao [temple].

[e] Zhending-wan Yang 真定王楊, Lin-i-hou Zhang 臨邑侯讓 planned to revolt; the sent vanguard commander Geng Chun 耿純 punished them.

[f] Second month. Day ji-yu. [His Majesty] was honored with a high visit to [county] Xiuyu.

[g] Dasykun Wang Liang 王梁 was removed from office.

Day Ren Tzu. Song Hong 宋弘, [ranking dignitary] Taichung Dafu, was appointed Dasykun.

[h] The commander-in-chief of the cavalry, Jing Dan 景丹, sent by [the emperor], led a punitive campaign, captured the commander Zhai Zun 祭遵 and two other military leaders, and struck a blow at Hong Nong’s gang; defeated her. After this, [the emperor] sent Zhai Zun to besiege the robber Zhang Man 張滿 [who had taken refuge in the city of] Manchong 蠻中.

[i] Chief ( Taishou) [district] Yuyang 漁陽 Peng Chun 彭寵 rebelled, attacked the chief ( mu) Yuzhou area 幽州 Zhu Fu 朱浮 under Ji 薊.

[j] Yan Tsen 延岑 arbitrarily called himself Wu-an-wang in [district] Hanzhong 漢中.

[k] Day xin mao . [His Majesty] arrived [to the capital] from [county] Xuyu.

[l] Third month. Day Yi-wei. General amnesty throughout the Celestial Empire. The decree read: “Now there are many offended people in prisons, torture is used mercilessly. We are very worried about them. Confucius said: “Punishments do not achieve their goal if the people have nowhere to put their hands and feet.” We hereby prescribe for average officials with a salary of 2,000 measures of grain, all Dafu(dignitaries), scientists boshi, [officials] Ilan to take care of moderation in penal laws."

[m] Sent by [the emperor] the ruler of the capital district ( zhijinwu執金吾) Jia Fu 賈復, at the head of two generals, struck a blow against [serving] Geng-shi[-di] Yan-wang Yin Zun 郾王尹遵, defeated him and forced him to surrender.

[n] The cavalry chief Liu Zhi 劉植 attacked the robber Mi and fell on the battlefield.

[o] They sent the commander of the “tiger banner” Ge Yan 蓋延, becoming the head of four commanders, to set out on a campaign against Liu Yong 劉永.

Fourth month. Summer.[Liu] Yong was besieged in Suiyang. The commander Geng-shi[-di] Su Mao killed the chief of the Huaiyang [district] Pan Jian and sided with Liu Yong.

[p] Day jia-wu. [Emperor Liu] Liang's father's younger brother was granted [the title] Guangyang Wang; [Liu] Zhang, the son of his elder brother, was granted the [title] of Taiyuan Wang; [Liu] Zhang [Liu] Xing's younger brother was granted the [title] of Lu-wan; Chongling-hou's heir [Liu] Zhi was granted the [title] of Chengyang-wan.

[q] Fifth month. Day gen-ch uh no. [The title] of Syshui-wan was granted to Xi, who had [previously] been given the title of Geng-shi[-di] of Yuanshi-wan. Then De, the son of Zhending Wang Yang, was granted the title of Zhending Wang; Ji Chang, a descendant of [Ji] Zhou, was granted [the title] Zhouchensu-gun.

[r] Day gui-wei. The highest decree read: “The people have married wives and sold sons. Those of them who wish to return to their parents are allowed to give free rein. We do not dare deprive them of their freedom; we recognize them in accordance with the law.”

[s] Sixth month. Day mou-xu. The first lady was erected ( guiren) Lady Guo as empress, [Emperor] Qiang's son was declared heir. A general amnesty was declared [throughout] the Celestial Empire. Increased the ranks of [officials] by one rank lanam, jeje, tsunguan.

Day bin-u. The eldest son of [the emperor] Liu Zhong was granted the [title] of Zichuan Wang.

[t] Autumn. Eighth month. The Emperor personally led the campaign against Wu Xiao.

Day Bing-chen.[ His Majesty ] honored Neihuang with the highest visit.

They inflicted a major defeat on Wuxiao at Yiyang and forced him to surrender.

[u] Sent a military official youji and general Deng Long to help Zhu Fu 朱浮 and fight Peng Chong 彭寵 at Lu 潞. [Deng] Luna's army was defeated.

[v] Ge Yan 蓋延 captured Suiyang 睢陽, Liu Yong fled to Qiao 譙.

[w] They defeated and captured the commander Deng Feng 鄧奉, and took possession of Yuyang.

[x] Ninth month. Day ren-wu.[ His Majesty ] arrived from Neihuang 內黃.

[y] The commander of the light cavalry, General Jing Dan 景丹, has passed away.

[z] Yan Cen 延岑 inflicted a great defeat on the "Red Brows" at Duling 杜陵.

Famine broke out in Inner Outpost, people ate each other.

Eleventh month. Winter. The judge of the Supreme Court of Justice, Cen Peng, was appointed commander-in-chief of the "marching south" and was placed at the head of eight generals to attack Deng Feng at Zhexiang.

[Armed formations] "Tongma" (Copper Horses), "Qingdu" (Young Oxen), "Yulai" (Selected Wheat) and the rest of the bandits jointly enthroned Sun Deng, considering him the Son of Heaven, in Shangjun [county]. Yue Xuan, [Sun] Deng's general, killed [Sun] Deng, causing this entire crowd of fifty thousand people to surrender.

The deputy commander Feng Yi was sent to replace Deng Yu and attack the Red Brows.

They appointed Fu Long, [who had the rank] Taichung Dafu, as ambassador, to pacify and unite the two districts [occupied by] Qingxu. Zhang Bu suggested that he surrender to him.

Twelfth month. Day moo-oo. The highest decree read: “Members of noble families and lehou Wang Mang was overthrown. The souls of ancestors have no one to rely on. We deeply regret this. Therefore, we are restoring the original kingdom. If howe have not yet died, but their descendants belong to those whose names can be seen in the [departmental lists] “Shangshu”, then they will be given the title and given a high post.”

Same year. Ge Yan and others inflicted a great defeat on Liu Yong to the west of Pei.

It started with the fact that at the end of Wang Mang there were droughts and locust attacks in the Celestial Empire. One jing斤 gold exchanged for one xy斛 millet. It got to the point where people were feeding on wild grains. [And somewhere] hemp grew abundantly, the oak silkworm produced cocoons, and someone hid in the mountains and hills - people thus received their benefit.

[ VII] Third year (27),

[a] First month. Spring. Day Chia Tzu. The flank commander Feng Yi made a punitive campaign against four commanders. Du Mao was appointed commander-in-chief of the light cavalry. Dasytu Deng Yu, joining Feng Yi, confronted the "Red Brows" at the Battle of Huixi, [Deng] Yu and [Feng] Yi were defeated.

[b] They punished the captured commander Zhai Cun, defeated at Manchung, and executed Zhang Man 張滿.

[c] Day Xin-sy. Four temples were erected [in honor of the emperor's grandfather], the sovereign of Nandun [district].

[d] Day ren-wu. General amnesty [throughout] the Celestial Empire.

[e] An additional month in a leap year. Day and-sy. Dasytu Deng Yu was dismissed.

[f] Feng Yi 馮異 entered into battle with the “Red Brows” at Yaodi 崤底 and inflicted a great defeat. The remaining people went south to Yiyang. The Emperor personally led the campaign against [the “Red Brows”].

Day ji-hai. [His Majesty] honored with a visit to [county] Iyan.

Day jia-chen. [His Majesty] personally commanded six armies. Selected troops were the first to field horses drawn to war chariots. Dasyma Wu Han was in front, the main forces of the army followed them, light cavalry and guards lined up on the flanks. The “red brows” saw all this from afar, became frightened and frightened, and sent an ambassador to ask for peace.

Day bin-u. The leader of the Red Brows, surrendering, presented Gao[-u-]di with the imperial seal. An order was given to subordinate [Chang'an] to the head of the city garrison.

Day wu-shen. [His Majesty] returned from Iyan.

Day ji-yu. The highest decree read: “The robbers were brazenly willful and destroyed the people. [Liu] Pengzi appropriated the title, started a rebellion and sowed confusion in the Celestial Empire. We, having raised an army, attacked and immediately fell and defeated them. More than ten thousand people with tied hands submitted. The seal of former emperors has been returned to the treasury. The souls of all these ancestors, the strength of warriors - aren’t We worthy to use this! Having chosen the happy day of the new moon in the Gaomiao Temple, we bestow titles on those sons of the Celestial Empire who relate to their fathers as descendants, [let them] have the first rank [of nobility].”

[g] Second month. Day ji-wei. We performed a prayer of thanks in the Gaomiao [temple] and accepted the state seal passed down from generation to generation.

Literature
1. Fan Ye. Hou Han shu (History of the Later Han [Empire]). Beijing, 1965.
2. Kryukov M.V., Perelomov L.S., Sofronov M.V., Cheboksarov N.I. Ancient Chinese V era centralized empires. M., 1983.
3. Malyavin V.V.. Empire of Scientists, M., 2007.
4. The Cambridge history of China. Volume 1. The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. - A.D. 220. London, 1984.

Art. publ.: Society and state in China: T. XLII, part 3 / Editorial team: A.I. Kobzev et al. - M.: Federal State Budgetary Institution of Science Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IV RAS), 2012. - 484 pp. - (Scientific Notes of the Institute of Oriental Studies RAS. Department of China. Issue 7 / Editorial Board: A.I. Kobzev and others). pp. 65-74.

God of war and military valor, patron of warriors fighting for a just cause. This is the god who was worshiped until the middle of the 19th century.

This image combines ancient ideas about the god of war and legendary stories about a truly existing valiant warrior named Guan Yu, who lived in 160–219.

Apparently, in ancient times Guan Di was somehow connected with mythical dragons. In any case, in the Middle Ages there were widespread legends that before the birth of Guan Yu, a dragon circled over the house of his parents. According to another version, he was miraculously born from the blood of the executed dragon Yu Di, which a Buddhist monk poured into his cup. Therefore, Guan Yu had dragon blood in his veins.

They said that from childhood he had extraordinary strength and fearlessness. He accomplished his first feat by killing the cruel ruler of the district, who committed arbitrariness. So that he could not be identified, he washed his face with water from a magical stream. However, if he really committed such a desperate act, his grateful fellow countrymen would not have given him up anyway.

It is possible that there is some truth in this story, because the hero’s further behavior is quite realistic and prosaic: he became a seller of soy cheese and thus even managed to get a little rich. However, the second could happen after he, having entered the service of the ruler, was selflessly devoted to him.

Apparently, episodes from Guan Yu’s biography explain the fact that not only the military, but also soy cheese traders and even businessmen and rich people considered Guan Di their patron (or was it important for them to have a reliable security guard?). Buddhist monks also revered him primarily as a protector of monasteries.

The veneration of Guan Di turned into a real cult of personality, in which the real Guan Yu became a mythological hero, and his virtues and deeds were truly extolled to the skies. The emperors bestowed upon him honorary titles - as if he were eternally alive. At the end of the 16th century, during the Ming Dynasty, he was given the title “di” - sovereign.

In the mid-19th century, Guan Di received the title "sheng" ("perfectly wise") after he allegedly appeared in the sky and helped government troops defeat the Taiping, a rebellious peasantry who tried to create a people's state. Although in reality the rulers of the Qing dynasty were helped in this case by the British, Americans and French. However, half a century later, participants in the anti-imperialist uprising of 1900 also prayed to Guan Di.

There is no doubt that the cult of the faithful servant and the valiant warrior was rooted and spread primarily by sovereigns who were vitally interested in this kind of propaganda. Almost thousands of large and small temples scattered throughout China were dedicated to him. He was honored by representatives of different religious movements. Buddhists claimed that he had been converted to their faith. And the Taoists created a legend that Guan Di defeated the rebel monster Chiyu in battle, who in Ancient China was revered as a fierce god of war, a beast-man with the head of a leopard and tiger claws, who owned all types of weapons. According to another version, the monster had the hooves and horns of a bull, the body of a man, four eyes and six arms. It was believed that he rebelled against the legendary ruler Huang Di.

In fact, the allegory about the victory of the loyal subject Guan Di over the rebellious Chiyu had its own truth: over time, with the significant strengthening of the emperor’s power, loyal sentiments began to prevail among the people (the opposite were dangerous and were brutally eradicated). This was also facilitated by the fact that Guan Di was an example of fidelity to duty, and therefore was considered the patron saint of merchants. He was also popular as one of the gods of wealth. For Confucians, he became the patron saint of scientists and writers, because, according to legend, his reference book was the work of Confucius “Spring and Autumn”.

The example of Guan Di shows especially clearly how the mythologization of a historical figure occurs. It is not at all necessary to assume that some mystical forces or complex philosophical considerations play an important role here. Too often the explanation lies in the plane of the real interests of individual social groups, public organizations, and government agencies.

Much depended on the current political situation. The Han Empire, after a period of prosperity, when it covered a fifth of the entire population of the Earth, began to weaken and decline. In the 3rd century AD e. it was constantly shaken by uprisings and socio-economic crises. The question of strengthening tsarist power and creating national idols of statists was acute. One of them was destined to become Guan Yu, who turned into the mythological hero Guan Di.