Parthian Empire. Political history of the Parthian kingdom. Contacts with China

Parthian kingdom. Brief history

The Seleucid kingdom, which turned out to be the heir to the eastern possessions of Alexander, began to decrease in size just a few decades after its emergence. Particularly noticeable for the Seleucids was the loss of the farthest eastern regions - Bactria (modern Northern Afghanistan and partly the right bank of the Amu Darya River) and Parthia (the Kopetdag Mountains and the adjacent valleys of Southwestern Turkmenistan and Northeastern Iran). They were lost in the middle of the 3rd century. BC during the civil strife between two Seleucid princes - Seleucus and Antiochus.

The Parthian period lasted longer than the Achaemenid period: it accounted for almost five centuries - from the second half of the 3rd century. BC (deposition of Parthia from the Seleucids) to the first quarter of the 3rd century. h.e. (rise and final victory over the last Parthian kings of the Sassanid dynasty). But the later Iranian historical tradition (dating back to the Sassanids) preserved almost no information about this period. "Their roots and branches were short, so that no one can claim that their past was glorious. I have heard nothing but their names, and have not seen them in the annals of kings." Such a memory remained of the Parthians by the 10th century. AD, when the Persian poet Ferdowsi wrote his “Book of Kings”.

The Parthians entered world history primarily as powerful and treacherous opponents of the Roman legions fighting in the East. And until very recently, having no other sources, historians were forced to look at the Parthians through the eyes of Latin and Greek authors. Naturally, their gaze was unfriendly and wary, and most importantly, cursory and very superficial. Thus, due to the incompleteness and one-sidedness of the sources, the idea of ​​“dark ages” arose in the history of Iran, when the Hellenistic heritage was in the hands of barbarian epigones, and spiritual culture was in decline. Only in the 20th century. New materials began to appear (primarily archaeological finds), which made it possible to look at the history of the Pathian state in a new way.

Dozens of cities and settlements of the Parthian period throughout the vast territory of the state have now been studied with varying degrees of detail. A vivid picture of life in a small Roman-Parthian border town was recreated thanks to work at Dura-Europos on the middle reaches of the Euphrates. In the 20-30s, excavations were carried out at one of the largest Hellenistic cities in Mesopotamia - Seleucia on the Tigris. The Parthian layers of Ctesiphon, one of the capitals of the Parthian Empire (also on the Tigris), have been studied in less detail. Excavations were also carried out on a number of other cities - Ashur, Hatra, etc., research began on one of the capitals - Hekatompylos, great results were obtained from the study of Parthian monuments in Southern Turkmenistan (i.e. in Parthia itself), and first of all, long-term excavations of the remains of the Parthian city Mihrdatkert (the settlements of Old and New Nisa, 16 km from Ashgabat). Several temples, public buildings and a necropolis have been excavated here. Among the most interesting finds in Nisa are monuments of Parthian art (clay and stone sculpture, carved wine horns - ivory rhytons). But a special place is occupied by the discovery of a Parthian economic archive - documents written in ink on ostraca (clay shards) that take into account the receipt of wine from the surrounding vineyards into the royal cellars of Mihrdatkert, as well as its issuance. In total, the archive from Nisa contains more than 2,500 such documents dating back to the 1st century. BC

The founder of the Parthian kingdom is considered to be Arshak - “a man of unknown origin, but of great valor...” (writes the Roman historian Justin). His name gave the name to the Arsacid dynasty. It is possible that Arshak came from Bactria. But the main force on which he relied was the northern neighbors of Parthia - the nomadic tribes of the Parni (or Dahi - the name of a large tribal union, which included the Parni).

The deposition of Bactria and Parthia from the Seleucids dates back to the middle of the 3rd century. BC, but Arshak’s seizure of power occurred somewhat later, probably in 238 BC. The first decades of the existence of the Parthian kingdom were filled with an intense struggle to expand their possessions and repulse the Seleucid attempts to regain power over the rebellious region. In 228 BC, when Arshak I’s brother Tiridates I was already on the Parthian throne, only the help of nomadic Central Asian tribes saved the Parthian king from defeat during the campaign against Parthia Seleucus II. In 209 BC. the son of Tiridates I was forced, after ceding part of his possessions, to make peace with the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who made a victorious campaign to the east.

By this time, the rich Caspian region of Hyrcania and part of Media were already under the rule of the Arsacids. But the final transformation of the Arsacids from modest rulers of a relatively small region into powerful rulers of a world power - “Great Parthia” - occurred only under Mithridates I (171-138 BC). By the end of his reign, the Arsacid possessions extended from the Hindu Kush mountains to the Euphrates, including (except for Parthia and Hyrcania proper) in the east the areas conquered from Greco-Bactria, and in the west most of the regions of Iran and Mesopotamia. The Seleucids tried unsuccessfully to resist the pressure of the Arsacids: Mithridates I captured and settled Demetrius II Nicator in Hyrcania, and the son and successor of Mithridates I Phraates II (138-128-27 BC) strengthened the conquests of the Parthians, striking in 129 .before h.e. defeat of Antiochus VII. The Parthian expansion to the west temporarily stopped when the Arsacid power from the east began to be threatened by a wave of nomadic tribes that surged from the steppes of Central Asia (in Chinese dynastic chronicles, this tribal association, which included the Kushan tribe, was called “Yuezhi”; ancient authors called them Tocharians ). In the fight against these tribes, both Phraates II and Artaban I, who ruled after him (128-27 - ca. 123 BC), found their death. The further advance of these tribes was stopped only by Mithridates II (c. 123 - c. 88 BC). Having strengthened the borders of his kingdom, Mithridates II managed to “annex many countries to the Parthian kingdom.” His foreign policy was especially active in the Transcaucasus (in particular, in Armenia).

In 92 BC. Mithridates II, having sent an embassy to Sulla, opened a completely new page in the foreign policy of the Parthian state - contact with Rome. Subsequently, relations between the two states were far from peaceful. Parthia turned out to be the main force preventing Rome from penetrating the East. The struggle, for which there were many reasons, went on with varying success for three centuries: Parthians chained in chains were seen on the elegant streets of Rome during the next triumph, and thousands of Roman legionnaires experienced the hardships of captivity in the depths of the Parthian state.

The most striking victory for the Parthians in this struggle came in 53 BC, when in the Battle of Carrhae (Harran in Upper Mesopotamia) the Roman army suffered a crushing defeat (the Romans lost 20 thousand in killed alone).

In 52-50 BC The Parthians occupied all of Syria in 40 BC. Parthian cavalry was seen at the walls of Jerusalem. In 39 and 38 BC success was on the side of the Romans, but in 36 BC. again the great campaign of the Roman army against the Parthians ended in complete failure. This time the Romans were led by Mark Antony. This happened already during the reign of Phraates IV (38-37-3-2 BC), who used the victory to establish long-term peaceful relations with Rome. In 20 BC. Phraates IV made an important diplomatic step that made a huge impression in Rome - he returned prisoners and standards of the Roman legions captured after the victories over the armies of Crassus and Antony. After this, there were no major clashes between Rome and Parthia for more than a hundred years.

But in 115 AD, already under Emperor Trajan, Armenia and Mesopotamia were declared Roman provinces. In 116 AD A new Roman province is created - "Assyria", and Trajan's troops enter Seleucia and the Parthian capital Ctesiphon, where they seize the "golden throne" of the Arsacids. Only the death of Trajan (117) improved the affairs of the Parthians. However, in 164 AD. (under Emperor Marcus Aurelius) the Romans again invaded Mesopotamia, burned Seleucia and destroyed the royal palace at Ctesiphon. In 198-199. The army of Emperor Septimius Severus inflicted a new crushing defeat on the Parthians and captured the royal treasury and 100 thousand prisoners in Ctesiphon. The victory of the last Parthian king, Artabanus V (213-227), over the Romans in 218 returned Mesopotamia to the Arsacids, but their throne was already shaking at that time under the blows of an internal enemy - the Sassanid dynasty that had risen in the province of Pars, who had not only to put the finishing touches in the history of the Arsacids, but also to continue their struggle with Rome.

References

1. History of the East; Publishing company "Oriental Literature" RAS, Moscow, 1997

To prepare this work, materials were used from the site http://www.world-history.ru/

Parthian Kingdom

An ancient state that arose around 250 BC. e. to the S. and S.-E. from the Caspian Sea (the indigenous agricultural population of this territory is the Parthians) and in its heyday (mid-1st century BC) subjugated vast areas from Mesopotamia to the borders of India to its power and political influence; existed until the 20s. 3rd century n. e. Around 250 BC e. Saka nomadic tribe of Parns (Dakhs) led by Arshak (the founder of the Arshakid dynasty (See Arshakids)) invaded the Seleucid satrapy Parthiene, or Parthia, which had recently fallen away from them. The Parni conquered its territory, then the neighboring region of Hyrcania. Seleucus II, after an unsuccessful attempt to restore his power in 230-227 BC. e. was forced to recognize the power of the Arsacids over Parthia. In 209 Parthia was subjugated by the Seleucid king Antiochus III (See Antiochus III). Taking advantage of the weakening of the Seleucid state, Parthia soon restored its independence. The Parpi were assimilated by the Parthians (adopted their culture, Parthian language and local beliefs).

Around 170-138/137 BC e. King Mithridates I of Parthia conquered the eastern Seleucid satrapies: Media, most of Mesopotamia, Elymaida with Susa, Parsa (Pereda) and part of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom (about 136 BC). However, further expansion of P. c. was suspended by uprisings of Greek cities in Babylonia, dissatisfied with the loss of their privileged position, as well as the advance of the nomadic tribes of the Sakas at the northeastern borders of the kingdom. The Seleucids, relying on the support of dissatisfied Greek cities, made attempts to restore their dominance, which ended with the defeat of the army of the Seleucid king Antiochus VII in 129. The position of the P. c. after this, however, it remained unstable: the Parthians lost control of Susa in 128/127 BC. e. King Kharakena Gispaosin captured Babylon, and the fight against the nomads continued on the eastern borders. Stabilization came under Mithridates II (about 123-88/87 BC), who conquered Drangiana, occupied by the Sakas, then Areia and Margiana, and to the west - northern Mesopotamia. The Parthians actively intervened in the political struggle of the last Seleucids in Syria; Greater Armenia was under Parthian political influence, where Tigran II was enthroned.

The first contact of the Parthians with Rome occurred at the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. (during the struggle of the Romans with the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator (See Mithridates VI Eupator)). According to the agreement of 92 BC. e. the border between P. c. and the Euphrates was recognized as the Roman state. Under the Parthian king Orodes II (about 57-37/36 BC), Roman troops were under command. M. Licinius Crassus invaded Mesopotamia, which was part of the P. c., but suffered a crushing defeat at Carrhae (See Carrhae) (53 BC). By 40, the Parthians had captured almost all of Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine. This threatened Rome's dominance in the East. In 39-37 BC. e. the Romans regained control of these areas. But the defeat of Antony (See Antony) (36 BC) in Media Atropatene stopped Rome's advance beyond the Euphrates. At the same time, the Romans tried to take advantage of the internal struggle in Parthia, where two groups opposing each other had formed among the ruling strata. The slave-owning elite of the Greek and local cities of Mesopotamia and Babylonia, as well as the Parthian nobility of these areas, were interested in the development of trade and close contacts with Rome; The nobility of the indigenous regions of Parthia, associated with nomadic tribes, took an irreconcilable position towards Rome and sought broad territorial conquests. The struggle of these groups, which led to civil wars 57-55, 31-25 BC. e., reached its apogee at the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. After the suppression of the anti-Parthian uprising in Seleucia on the Tigris in 43, which lasted 7 years, Greek cities were deprived of their autonomy. Interest in local culture increased, and anti-Hellenistic and anti-Roman tendencies increased. Although the struggle for the throne between the successors of Artaban III Gotarz and Vardan weakened Parthia, under Vologes I (about 51/52-79/80) internal stabilization allowed active politics to be pursued again, which resulted in the approval in 66 of the Great brother of Vologes Tiridates I on the throne of Armenia (see Arsacids Armenian). Soon, a period of sharp decline in Parthia began, caused by the growth of local separatism, incessant dynastic strife and raids by nomadic Alans. This allowed the Romans to brutally devastate the western regions of Parthia (114-117, 163-165, 194-198). However, the territories of Rome's acquisition were limited only to Northern Mesopotamia; attempts to annex Babylonia were unsuccessful, mainly due to uprisings of the local population. Although the Parthians managed to defeat the Romans at times, the process of political disintegration of the state could not be stopped. The regions of Margiana, Sakastan, Hyrkania, Elimaida, Parsa, Kharaken, and the city of Hatra were practically independent. External and internecine wars exhausted the country. In 224, the ruler of the vassal Parsa (Persia) Ardashir (see Ardashir I) inflicted a decisive defeat on Artaban V on the Hormizdagan plain, after which P. c. ceased to exist; its territory became part of the Sassanid state (See Sassanids), the founder of which was Ardashir I.

P. c. did not have a homogeneous social structure. In the eastern regions, the bulk of the population were personally free communal peasants exploited by the state. Gradually, a relationship of personal dependence of the peasants on individual representatives of the nobility - the “free” (azats), was formed, whose class included both the descendants of the Parni nomadic aristocracy and the top of the Parthian agricultural nobility. Slavery, apparently, was poorly developed. In the western regions (Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Elymaida), slavery played a more significant role, and other forms of dependence also existed. Territory of P. c. divided into satrapies. The king's power was limited by the advice of the clan nobility and priests. In the satrapies there were royal farms, taxes from which went to the royal treasury. The unified state religion in the P. c. didn't exist. Various forms of Zoroastrianism prevailed in the eastern regions, Buddhism spread in Margiana, both Greek and old Babylonian cults, as well as various syncretic teachings that prepared Manichaeism, spread in the west, and Christianity began to spread at the end of the Parthian era.

Architecture, fine and decorative arts. Initially the art of P. c. acted as one of the branches of Hellenistic culture (See Hellenistic culture). Subsequently, elements of Hellenistic art brought by the conquerors were partly supplanted and partly creatively reworked by the local population. For the eastern part of P. c. were typical temples, which, according to the plan (a square sanctuary with 4 columns in the center, surrounded by rooms), possibly go back to the ancient fire temple (temple at Persepolis, 3rd century BC). The buildings of the palace ensembles were usually grouped around the central courtyard, into which the Ayvans opened (palace on Mount Kuhe-Khoja in Iran, 1st-3rd centuries). Along with imported Hellenistic works of plastic art in the eastern part of P. c. Local painted clay statues (in the buildings of Nisa (See Nisa)), small plastic sculptures (in Margiana (See Margiana)) became widespread. Planar and frontal rock reliefs are known (for example, on the Behistun rock, first centuries AD), fragments of polychrome paintings of the palace on Mount Kuhe-Khoja. Among the products of decorative and applied art of the eastern part of P. c. rhytons from Nisa stand out (ivory, 2nd century BC: for illustrations see vol. 18, p. 28 ), local forms, with friezes on Greek and local subjects.

Temple architecture of the western part of P. c. characterized by the presence of many types of sanctuaries. Temples of the Babylonian type (a courtyard with rooms around the perimeter) were built in Nippur; Greco-Roman influence is significant in the temples of Hathra. The Greek Peristyle was often combined in fortress and palace buildings and the local ivan (palace in Ashur, 1st century AD). The architecture of the dwelling (See Dwelling) is characterized by a transition from the “pastad” type of house brought by the Greeks to the “ivan” type of house. In painting (temples of Dura-Europos) and sculpture (statues of kings and gods from Hatra) in the first centuries AD. e. There are noticeable tendencies towards frontal composition and flatness. Small sculpture is characterized by the gradual disappearance of Greek types and a recourse to local subjects (reclining goddess, horseman).

Lit.: Dyakonov M. M., Essay on the history of ancient Iran, M., 1961; Masson M.E., Peoples and regions of the southern part of Turkmenistan as part of the Parthian state, “Proceedings of the South Turkmenistan Archaeological Complex Expedition”, Ash., 1955, vol. 5; Bokshchanin A.G., Parthia and Rome, [part. 1-2], M., 1960-66; Dyakonov I.M., Livshits V.A., Documents from Nisa. 1st century BC e. Preliminary results of the work, M., 1960; Koshelenko G. A., Culture of Parthia, M., 1966; his, Some questions of the history of early Parthia; "Bulletin of Ancient History", 1968, No. 1; Debevoise N., A political history of Parthia, Chi., 1938; Wolski J., L "historicité d" Arsace I, “Historia”, 1959, Bd 8, No. 2; Ghirshman R., Persian art. The Parthian and Sassanian dynasties..., N. Y., : _Schlumberger D., L'orient hellénisé, P., 1970.

G. A. Koshelenko.

Parthian kingdom.

Palace on Mount Kuhe-Khoja. 1st-3rd centuries Section and plan.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what the “Parthian Kingdom” is in other dictionaries:

During the period of its greatest power, ca. 60 BC uh... Wikipedia

Modern encyclopedia

State in 250 BC e. 224 n. e. southeast of the Caspian Sea. Name from the Parthians of the Iranian tribe. The territory in its heyday (mid-1st century BC) from Mesopotamia to the river. Ind. Rival of Rome in the East. Since 224 its territory was part of... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

State in 250 BC - 224 AD southeast of the Caspian Sea. In its heyday (mid-1st century BC) it occupied the space from Mesopotamia to the Indus River. Rival of Rome in the East. From 224 AD its territory was part of the state... ... Historical Dictionary

Parthian Kingdom- PARTHIAN KINGDOM, a state in 250 BC 224 AD southeast of the Caspian Sea. The territory in its heyday (mid-1st century BC) from Mesopotamia to the Indus River. Rival of Rome in the east. Since 224 its territory was part of... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Nisa- an ancient medieval city in the foothills of the Kopetdag, near the modern village of Bagir, now represents the ruins of two ancient settlements: New Nisa and Old Nisa. The earliest traces of human activity at the site of New Nisa date back to the 4th-2nd millennium BC. In the 1st millennium BC. a fairly large settled settlement already existed here. According to legend, during the time of Darius Hystaspes (VI century BC), the settlement became a border fortress that blocked the path of warlike nomads invading from the north.

In the 4th century BC. The Achaemenid Empire collapsed under the blows of the Greco-Macedonian troops. Under the Seleucids - the successors of Alexander the Great - the independent states of Bactria, Parthia and Khorezm were formed. They went through a dynamic, eventful historical path in their development, quite well illuminated in the works of ancient authors. The most notable successes were achieved by Parthia, which existed for almost 600 years (from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD) and became a country by the 1st century AD. formidable rival of Rome. It was a huge empire, at its height stretching from the Mediterranean to North-West India. And its cradle, the original core was Partava - the historical area inhabited by the Parthians, which is divided into two parts by the Kopetdag ridge. One of them roughly corresponds to the territory of modern Ahal velayat in Turkmenistan.

It was here, no earlier than 247 BC, that the Aparni (or Parni) tribe, having become a large association of nomads living in the Karakum Desert, led by their leader Arsak, captured Partava (Northern Parthia). The Greek governor of this Seleucid satrapy was killed, and Arsaces was declared king of independent Parthia. Then he occupied Hyrcania (the region southeast of the Caspian Sea), where the first capital of the Parthian kingdom, Hekatompyla, subsequently arose. The city of Parfavnis became the administrative and economic center of the Arsacid dynasty on the land of their ancestors.

For this reason, they built the tomb of their first kings here. The suburb of Parfavnisa was surrounded by a 7 km long adobe wall, and the entire district with adjacent villages was also surrounded by a ring of walls.

Under Mithridates (174-136 BC), the royal fortress Mithridatkert (with an area of ​​about 14 hectares) with 43 towers was erected on the site of Old Nisa. From the point of view of ancient technology, the fortress was an impregnable stronghold. In the II-I centuries. BC, during the heyday of the Parthian Empire, Nisa acquired the status of a royal sanctuary, where there may have been a necropolis of members of the Arsacid dynasty. It was during the heyday of Parthian culture in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC include numerous archaeological finds made in the middle of the 20th century. These are the ruins of temple architecture with monumental clay sculpture, marble statues, a whole collection of cult rhytons made of ivory with relief ornaments, jewelry and small plastic items made of metal and terracotta, weapons, utensils, etc. Economic documents were also discovered (mainly on the accounting of wine products) written in the Aramaic alphabet in Parthian.

In 226 AD, when the Parthian state was defeated and ceased to exist, and the Sassanids came to power and founded a new power, Old Nisa as the dynastic abode of the Parthian kings was first of all completely destroyed and fell into complete decline. The Parthian freemen began to be inexorably eradicated. As noted by the largest expert on Parthian culture, for many years leading archaeological research on the sites of Nisa, Doctor of Historical Sciences V.N. Pilipko: “by the end of their reign, the Sassanids achieved their goal - the memory of the Parthians seemed to have disappeared forever. People who spoke the Parthian language and called themselves Parthians disappeared from the world. But the people, as such, did not really disappear, changing their name, language and customs, they continued to live on their land, and in the veins of modern Turkmens there is a significant share of Parthian blood. The successive connection of many generations living on the lands of Southern Turkmenistan is even more clearly visible when studying the local culture, and this largely explains the keen interest of the modern population in the culture of ancient Parthia, which considers it as an integral part of its past.”

According to the unanimous opinion of researchers, the key monuments for understanding the Parthian culture, which has sunk into centuries, are undoubtedly the ancient and New Nisa settlements, which preserve in archaeological layers invaluable information about the material culture and art of one of the great powers of the ancient world. That is why in 2007 the Parthian fortresses of Nysa were included in the UNESCO World Heritage List as unique sites of a long-vanished civilization.